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Circulation With Gas Exchange, Adaptive Immunity Conjoined With…

- - - - Diffusion- is the net passive movement of particles (atoms, ions or molecules) from a region in which they are in higher concentration to regions of lower concentration. It continues until the concentration of substances is uniform throughout.
      - Gastrovascular cavity- is a structure found in primitive animal phyla. It is responsible for both the digestion of food and the transport of nutrients throughout the body.
      - Circulatory Systems
        
        Open system- are systems where blood, rather than being sealed tight in arteries and veins, suffuses the body and may be directly open to the environment at places such as the digestive tract
        
        Close systems- is comprised of the heart that pumps blood into the vessels to reach the tissues and organs. The exchange of gases in the bloodstream occurs between smaller vessels (capillaries) and tissues
        
        Hemolymph- intestinal fluid in open systems
        
        Blood- fluid that transports oxygen and nutrients to the cells and carries away carbon dioxide and other waste products, present in closed circulatory systems
        
        Organization of Vertebrate Circulatory System
        
        Arteries- carry blood to the heart
        
        Arterioles- arteries branch into arterioles
        
        Capillaries- small vessels that convey blood
        
        Capillaries bed- network of capillaries
        
        Venules- where capularies converge
        
        Veins- this is where venules converge
        
        Ateria- the chamber of the heart that receives blood
        
        Ventricles- the chamber of the heart that pumps blood
        
        Single circulation- the blood passes only once through the heart in each complete circuit of the body
        
        Double circulation- this means we have two loops in our body in which blood circulates. One is oxygenated, meaning oxygen rich, and the other is deoxygenated, which means it has little to no oxygen, but a lot of carbon dioxide
      - Mammalian Heart
        
        Cardiac cycle- the complete sequence of events in the heart from the beginning of one beat to the beginning of the following beat : a complete heartbeat including systole and diastole
        
        Systole- is the phase of the cardiac cycle in which the heart muscles are contracted
        
        Diastole- is when the muscles of the heart are relaxed and allows blood to enter the chambers
        
        Cardiac output- The amount of blood the heart pumps through the circulatory system in a minute
        
        Heart rate- is the speed of the heartbeat measured by the number of contractions (beats) of the heart per minute (bpm)
        
        Stroke volume- the amount of blood pumped by a ventricle in a single contraction
        
        Atrioventricular valve- either of two heart valves through which blood flows from the atria to the ventricles; prevents return of blood to the atrium
        
        Semilunar- the heart valve at the base of the aorta and the pulmonary artery, and consisting of cusps or flaps that prevent the back flow of the blood during systole
        
        Heart murmur- sound that may be innocent or may reflect disease or malformation. A heart murmur is created by blood flow through a heart valve, by blood flow through a narrowed chamber, or by an unusual connection between the chambers, as seen with congenital heart disease
        
        Sinoatrial (SA) node- is one of the major elements in the cardiac conduction system, the system that controls the heart rate
        
        Electrocardiogram (ECG)- is a test that records the electrical activity of your heart
        
        Atrioventricular node- A small mass of specialized cardiac muscle fibers, located in the wall of the right atrium of the heart, that receives electrical impulses from the sinoatrial node and directs them to the conduction system in the walls of the ventricles
      - Blood Pressure
        
        Endothelium- refers to cells that line the interior surface of blood vessels and lymphatic vessels, forming an interface between circulating blood or lymph in the lumen and the rest of the vessel wall
        
        Systolic pressure- The blood pressure when the heart is contracting. It is specifically the maximum arterial pressure during contraction of the left ventricle of the heart. The time at which ventricular contraction occurs is called systole
        
        Pulse- the rhythmic bulging of the artery walls within each heartbeat
        
        Diastolic pressure- is specifically the minimum arterial pressure during relaxation and dilatation of the ventricles of the heart when the ventricles fill with blood
        
        Vascocoonstruction- Narrowing of the blood vessels that results from contraction of the muscular walls of the vessels, the opposite of vasoconstriction is vasodilation
        
        Vasodilation- is the widening of blood vessels, it results from relaxation of smooth muscle cells within the vessel walls, in particular in the large veins, large arteries, and smaller arterioles
        
        Lymph nodes- part of the bodies defense
      - Blood Components Function in Exchange, Transport, and Defense
        
        Plasma- helps to distribute heat throughout the body and to maintain homeostasis, or biological stability, including acid-base balance in the blood and body
        
        Cellular Elements
        
        Platelets- an irregular, disc-shaped element in the blood that assists in blood clotting
        
        Erythrocytes- are red blood cells that travel in the blood
        
        Sickle-cell disease- a genetic blood disease due to the presence of an abnormal form of hemoglobin, namely hemoglobin S. Hemoglobin is the molecule in red blood cells that transports oxygen from the lungs to the farthest areas of the body
        
        Leukocytes- Any of the nucleated blood cells that lack hemoglobin, and whose main function involves the body's immune system, protecting the body against invading microorganisms and foreign particles
        
        Stem cells- are an ongoing source of the differentiated cells that make up the tissues and organs of animals and plants
        
        Hemoglobin- the oxygen-carrying pigment and predominant protein in the red blood cells
        
        Erythropoietin- is a substance produced by the kidney that leads to the formation of red blood cells in the bone marrow
    - - Partial pressure- exerted by a single component of a mixture of gases, commonly expressed in mm hg or torr; for a gas dissolved in a liquid, the partial pressure is that of a gas that would be in equilibrium with the dissolved gas
      - Ventilation- the exchange of air between the lungs and the atmosphere so that oxygen can be exchanged for carbon dioxide in the alveoli (the tiny air sacs in the lungs)
      - Countercurrent exchange- a biological mechanism designed to enable maximum exchange between two fluids. The mechanism's effect is dependent on the two fluids flowing in opposite directions, and having a concentration gradient between them
      - Tracheal system- a branched network of tubes that bring O2 directly to cells
      - Gas exchange occurs in the lungs, trachea, bronchi, bronchioles, and alveoli
      - Positive pressure breathing- forces air down the trachea
      - Negative pressure breathing- pulls air into the lungs when the rib muscles and diaphragm contract
      - Respiratory pigment- such as hemocyanin and hemoglobin that bind to O2, increasing the amount of O2 transported by the circulatory system
- - - - Inflammatory Response
        
        Histamine- triggers nearby blood vessels to dilate and become more permeable
        
        Inflammatory response- a set of events triggered by signaling molecules released upon injury or infection
      - Antimicrobial Peptides and Proteins
        
        Complement system- consist of roughly 30 proteins in blood plasma and they circulate in an inactive state and are activated by substances on the surface of many pathogens
        
        Interferons- are proteins that provide innate defense
      - Natural killer cells- cells that circulate throughout the body and detect the abnormal array of surface proteins characteristic of some virus-infected and cancerous cells
      - Dendritic cells- mainly populate tissues, such as skin, that contact the environment, they stimulate adaptive immunity against pathogens that they encounter
      - Macrophages- large phagocytic cells, migrate throughout the body, whereas others reside permanently in organs and tissues where they are likely to encounter pathogens
      - Neutrophils- circulate in the blood, are attracted by signals from infected tissues and then engulf and destroy the infecting pathogens
      - Toll-like receptor (TLR)- a mammalian recognition protein similar to the Toll protein of insects
    - - Phagocytosis- ingest and break down microorganisms
      - Lysosomes- an enzyme that breaks down bacteria cell walls, further protects the insect digestive system
  - - - Acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS)- is a viral replication and cell death triggered by the virus lead to the loss of helper t cells, impairing the hormonal and cell-mediated immune response
      - Autoimmune disease- the immune system is active against particular molecules of the body
    - - Monoclonal antibodies- antibodies prepared from a single clone of B cells grown in culture
      - Passive immunity- antibodies in the recipient are produced by another individual
      - Active immunity- the defense that arise when a pathogen prompts an immune response
      - Immunization- the use of antigens artificially introduced in the body to generate an adaptive immune system
      - Cytotoxic T cell- the toxic proteins to kill cells infected by viruses or other intracellular pathogens
      - Antigen-presenting cell- can be a dendritic cell, macrophage, or B cell
      - Helper T cell- activates humoral and cell-mediated response
      - Cell-mediated immune response- specialized T cells destroy infected host cells
      - Humoral immune response- antibodies help neutralize or eliminate toxins and pathogens in body fluids
    - - Proliferation of B Cells and T Cells
        
        Secondary immune response- response that is faster that peaks 2-7 days after exposure, the concentration of specific antibodies in the blood is the main difference between the two
        
        Primary immune response- the effector cells formed by clones of lymphocytes after an initial exposure to an antigen, peak after 10-17 days
        
        Clonal selection- an encounter with an antigen selects which lymphocyte will divide to produce a clonal population of thousands of cells specific for a particular epitope
        
        Memory cells- long-lived cells that can give rise to effector cells if the same antigen is encountered later in the animal's life
        
        Effector cells- short-lived cells that take effect immediately against the antigen and any pathogens producing the antigen
      - Antigen Recognition by T Cells
        
        Antigen presentation- each antigen fragment binds to an MHC molecule, which transports the bound peptide to the cell surface
        
        Major histocompatibility complex (MHC) molecule- the host protein that displays the antigen fragment on the cell surface
      - Antibody- a secrete protein also, known as immunoglobulin (Ig), antibodies provide a direct defense against pathogens in body fluids
      - Each B cell antigen receptor is a Y-shaped protein consisting of four polypeptide chains: two identical heavy chains and two identical heavy chains
    - - Epitope- the small, accessible portion of an antigen that bind to an antigen receptor
      - Antigen receptor- B cell or t cell binds to an antigen, such as a bacterial or viral protein, via protein called an antigen receptor
      - Antigen- any substance that elicits a B or T
      - B cells- lymphocytes that remain and mature in the bone marrow
      - T cells- lymphocytes mature into T cells
      - Thymus- an organ in the thoracic cavity above the heart
      - Lymphocytes- originate from stem cells in the bone marrow, T cells and B cells are types of blood cells