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Genetic Variation #, Asexual Reprodcution Vs. Sexual Reproduction,…
Levels of biodiversity are genetic, species, and ecosystem
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Genetic Diversity: The total genetic info that is in all individuals of species, population, and/or a community
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Ecosystem Diversity: The measure if the variety if biotic components in a region along with abiotic components
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Ecosystem Services includes provisioing services, regulating services, cultural services, and supporting services
Biodiversity is the variety of life on Earth, in all its forms and all its interactions.
is being damaged because of humans. Humans are wiping to out species that are vital to the biodiversity of the ecosystem
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Population genetics is the study of genetic variation in natural population. It addresses detailed questions about genetic variation
Gene flow : we carry our genes around with us all the time so moving around has homogenousized our gene flow and allows for a homogenous effect
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Eukaryotic Diversity
Domain Eukarya is divided into 4 kingdoms; Plants, animals,fungi, and protist
A protist is an organism that has a nucleus but lack other key features specific to plant; they Isley describe the diverse world of microscopic eukaryotes
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Superkingdoms: One of seven major groups of eukaryotic orgnaims, classified by molceular sequence comparisons
Tests : A house constructed of organic molecules with or without precipitated minerals of adhering sediment grains of eukaryotic
Opiskthoinka: Superkingdom that encompasses animals, fungi, and related protists. They are the most diverse eukaryotic superkingdom
Amoeboza: Superkingdom of eukaryotes with amoeba like cells that move and gather food by means of pseudopia. They produce multicellular structures and play an important role in soils and other organisms
Archaeplastids: Eukaryotic super kingdom of photosynthetic organism (includes land plants). The are compromised if glucocytophytes,red algae, and green algae
Coenocytic: Containing many nuclei within one giant cell. The nucleus divides multiple times but the nucleiare not portioned into individual cells
Stromenaplies,alevolares,and rhizarions dominate eukaryotic diversity in the oceans
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Species Concepts
Species & Speciation
Species problem: Species as a evolutionary unit must by definition be fluid and capable of changing ( species aren't fixed). There is no one definition for what a specie is.
Reproductive Isolation
Pre-Zygotic: Isolating factors that act before fertilization of an egg. It prevents fertilization from taking place ( most species)
Can result from Behavioral isolation, gametic isolation incompatibility, temporal isolation, geographic/ecological isolation
Post- Zygotic: Isolating factors come into play after fertilization . It results in failure of the fertilized egg to develop in a fertile individuals
Mechanical Incompatibility: Structural configuration of the genitalia the prevents mating with other individuals
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Geographic/ecological isolation : spatial segregation of individuals/ isolation between individuals that specialized ecologically in different ways
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Behavioral Isolation: Individuals mate only with other individuals based on specific courtship rituals, songs, or other behaviors
Genetic incompatibility: Genetic dissimilarity between 2 organisms that is sufficient to act as a post-zygotic isolating factor
The more closely related a pair of specifies, the less extreme the genetic incompatibility between the genomes
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Speciation
Speciation is a gradual process that is by product of the genetic divergence of separated populations
There are two types of speciation is allopatric and sympatric speciation. Allopatric is speciation that results from geographical separation of population.Sympatric isolation is speciation in the same location.
A population can become allopatric through dispersal or vicariance. Dispersal is when some individuals colonize a different place.Vicariance is when geographic barriers arise within a single population
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Gene flow negates the genetic divergence of population #
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Co-Speciation: Process in which 2 groups of organisms speciate in response to each other and at the same time
Adaptive Radiation: Period of unusually rapid evolutionary diversification in which natural selection accelerates the rate of speciation within a group
Biological Species Concept (BSC) : Species are groups of actually or potentially interbreeding populations that are reproductively isolated from other such group. It sates that members of different species are reproductively isolated from each other
Morphospecies concept: Idea that member of the same species usually look like each other more than other species . It states that on the molecular level, member of the same species usually have similar DNA sequence that are distinct from those of other species
Ecological Species Concept ( ESC): The idea that there is a one -on-one correspondence between a species and it niche
Phylogenetic Species Concept (PSC): Emphasis that members of a species all share common ancestry and a common fate
Ecology and evolution extends the BSC #
BSC is the most widely used and generally accepted of species. It does not apply to asexual or extinct organisms. it is the most constructive way tot think about species
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Species can sometimes be characterized by ecological niche. Two specie can't coexist in the same environment if their niche is the same
Reading a phylogenetic tree #
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Systematics is the study of evolutionary relationship among organisms and it comes into two disciplines; taxonomy and phylogentics
Taxonomy aims to recognize and name group of indiviuals as species then group closely relatied species into taxonomic group
Phylogentics aims to discover pattern of evolutionary relationships among group of species other groups bt comparing their anatomical or molecular features #
Phylogenetic tree are but from morphological features and molecular attributes of the species or groups
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Evoluntionary relationship unfold in a treelike patterns with individual species at the twig tips and closest relatives being connceted at the nodes
Monophyletic: Describes groupings in which all members share a single common ancestor that are not shared with any other species or group
Major goal of phylogenetic because they show evolutionary path a given group has taken since it orgin; omitting same members of the group can provide a misleading sense of evoluntionary history
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Polyphyletic: Grouping that do not include the last common ancestor of all memebers. They share traits that evolve indpendeentlry by convergent evolution
Largest limb of the entire tree are eukarya(eukaryotes), bacteria, and Archea
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Diffusion and Bulk Flow
Bulk flow is the movement of fluids over a long distance through organisms due to pressure difference #
In general, when some cells within an organism are buried within tissue that are far from the external enviroment, bulk flow is needed to supply those cells with the molecules needed for metabolism
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In plants, bulk flow operates through a system of specialaized tissues power by the evapaoration of water from the leaf surfaces
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Limits of diffusion includes....1) constraint eukaryotic organisms functions 2) diffusion exerts a strong g constraint on the size, shape, and function of cells 3) distance over which molecules can diffuse quickly depends on how great the concentration is
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Other Important Info:
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Eukaryotes can not perform binary fission due to linerar chromosome ( allows them to perform cell division)
Asexual reprodcution multicellular eukaryotes: 1) Mitosis 2) Fragmentation 3) Fission 4) Vegetative reproduction
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External fertlization: occurs when sperm and egg are release into the water. This doesn't work on land because eggs can not swim/move and they can dry out
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Eukaryotic Orgins
Symbiont: Organisms that live in closely evolved association with another species
Symbiosis: Close interaction that has evolved between species that live togther, often independelty
Endosymbiosos: A symbiosis in which one partner lives within the other
Eukaryotes were able to aquire the ability to perform photosynthesis because they could engulf and retain cynobacteria cells #
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Biologist propose tha archaea like microorganisms played a key role in the organ to the eukaryotic cell. Other biologist propose that there wasn't any eukaryotic cells untill mitochondria emerged
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In the ocean, many single celled eukaryotes harbor symbiotic bacteria
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Mitosis vs Meiosis
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Mitosis creates 2 daughter cells (identical diploids) while meiosis crates 4 daughter cells ( no identical haploid)
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Cell divines occurs for either growth, repair, or reproduction
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The Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium: Describes situations in which allele and genotype don't change and evolution doesn't occur
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Any change in specific I'm allele frequencies, genotype frequencies, or both consistutes evolution #
Any change in specific I'm allele frequencies, genotype frequencies, or both consistutes evolution
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Molecular Evolution: Evolution at the level of DNA which in time results in the genetic divergence if a population
Molecual clock relates to the amount of sequence difference beterrn the species and the time since the species diverges
The Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium: Describes situations in which allele and genotype don't change and evolution doesn't occur
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Evolution is a change in allele or genotype frequencies. Evolution is a change in the genetic makeup of a population over time
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Fossil record provides us with unique info, they enable us to calibrate phylogenetic in terms of times, they place evolutionary events with content of earth y's dynamic environmental history, and they provide us a record of our extinct species
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Molecular Fossils: sterols, bacterial lipiods and some pigment molecules which are relatively resistant to decompostition that can be present in sedimentary rocksdoscumentating organisms that rarely form conventional fossils
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Fossils perceive some aspects of biological history well and others poorly. They provide a good sense of how the forms, fucntins, and diversity of skeltionized animals have chnaged over the past 500 years
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Bacterial Diversity
Proteobacteria: Most diverse bacterial group. Defined largely by similarities in RNA gene sequence. It includes many of the organisms that popullate the expanded carbon cycle and other biochemical cycles #
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Bacterial species are increasing characterized by their DNA sequence, especially the genes for the small subunit of ribosomal RNA. But there isn't a specific definition for bacterial species #
Periodic Selection: The epiosidic loss of diversity as a sucessful variant outcompetes others. Populations selected during the same episode of periodsc selection belong to the same species
Bacterial Phylogeny is a work in progress; Horizontal gene transfer tends to falsely group distantly related bacteria together in phlyogenies
Cyanobacteria: Monolypletic group go bacteria capable of oxygenic photosynthesis. They can be found in a range of enviroments
Gram Positive Bacteria: Bacteria that retain the diagnostic dye developed by chrrisitan gram. They include organsims that cause and cure disease
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Archaea Diversity
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Hyperthermophiles: Organisms that requires an environment with high temperature( needed for survival)
Archaea include several groups of acid loving microorganisms and they are the only ones that can produce methane as a byproduct of energy metabolism
Methanogens: Archaea that generate natural gas (methane) as a by product of anaerobic energy metabolism(most live in soil and sediment)
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Plant Vs. Animals
Plants and animals have evolved different system for cell adhesion and molecular signaling. They have also developed similar genetic logic to govern developmental but use distinct sets of genes
Plant growth is confined to meristems(discrete poulation of actively dividing). Plants adjust to enviromental changes by adjusting mertism
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Bastula: A hollow ball of cells filled with fluid that develops from the marula and is an early stage during embryo to devlopment in animals #
GastrulaL: A stage of early embryo development in animals when cells of the hollow blastula migrate and recognize to form multilayerd structure in which different cell types begin to diffeentiate
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Mutualisitic Interaction
Mutalism is when the benefits for each participant outweign their cost. Benefits include the access to nutrients, shelter from predators or weather, and direct help in reproduction. Cost include the proteins ,fats, carbohydrates that are invested in building strucutes; cost can also take the form of energy consuming activites
Mutalisims are subject to natural selection and are heart of some of the most important biological interactions on earth. Mutalism may evolve increasing interdependence.
Mutalism may be obligate or facuilative. When one or both sides of mutation cannot survive without each other the association is obligate. Faculitative is when other associations are not so tightly intertwined such that one or both participants can survice without the other
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Many obligate associations are thought to have started out as facultative relationship that become reinforced over time by natural selection
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The Niche
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niche is a species place with nature. it is the combination of species physically habitat and its ecological role in that habitat
it is determined by physical factor such as climate and soil chemistry as well as by biological factors based on interactions with other species
Fundamental niche if a species includes the full range if climate conditions and food resources that permit the indiviuals in a species to live. The realized niche is more restricted than its fundamental niche
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Phylogenetic conservatism is the tendency of species to retain aspects of their ancestral niches and therefore fir closely related species ti resemble each other in niches. The study us new and speaks to our increasing awareness of the strong influene of evolutionary histroy
Communities
Species that live in the same place make up communities. A community is a set of all population of 2 or more difficult soecies founf in a given place at a given time.
Biodiversity is the total number of species or the diversity of genetic sequence. it is usually measured by species richness and species evenness
Species influence each other in complex web of interactions. The interactions among all the population in a given habitiat define the nature of that community.
Pivotal population(aka keystone species) support a community in a much the same way that an architectural keystone supports an arch. Keystone species have a disproportionate effects on the communites
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Levels of biodiversity are genetic, species, and ecosystem
Genetic Diversity: The total genetic info that is in all individuals of species, population, and/or a community
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Ecosystem Diversity: The measure if the variety if biotic components in a region along with abiotic components
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Mutations can either go to fixation through genetic drift or natural selection. They can be maintained at intermediate frequencies (balancing selection) or they can be completely eliminated through natural selection or genetic drift.
Migration, and nonrandom mating can cause allele and genotype frequencies to change as well #
Genetic drift is a change in allele frequencies due to change from generation to generation. It dramatically affects small populations
Bottle Neck occurs when an originally large population is reduces to a few individuals (geographic region)(Time)
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Mutation : a source of genetic variation that can be neutral, deleterious, or advantage # #
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Germ-line Mutations: Mutations that can be passed to offspring because it occurs within the sex cells
Somatic Mutations: Mutatuios that can't be passed to offspring because it doesn't over within the sex cells ( mostly body cells)
Biodiversity is the variety of life on Earth, in all its forms and all its interactions.
is being damaged because of humans. Humans are wiping to out species that are vital to the biodiversity of the ecosystem
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Levels of biodiversity are genetic, species, and ecosystem
-
Genetic Diversity: The total genetic info that is in all individuals of species, population, and/or a community
-
Ecosystem Diversity: The measure if the variety if biotic components in a region along with abiotic components
-
Ecosystem Services includes provisioing services, regulating services, cultural services, and supporting services
Biodiversity is the variety of life on Earth, in all its forms and all its interactions.
is being damaged because of humans. Humans are wiping to out species that are vital to the biodiversity of the ecosystem
-
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Gene flow : we carry our genes around with us all the time so moving around has homogenousized our gene flow and allows for a homogenous effect
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Molecular Evolution: Evolution at the level of DNA which in time results in the genetic divergence if a population
Molecual clock relates to the amount of sequence difference beterrn the species and the time since the species diverges
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New mutations that are harmful are eliminated by natural selection have no long term evolutionary impact but mutations that are beneficial are the complete opposite
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Miodern Synthesis is our current theory if evolution. It combines Darwins their if natural selection and median genetics
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Evolutionary relatedness is determined by following nodes from the tips to the root of phylogenetic tress rather than by order of the tips from the top to the bottom
In combo, fossils and phylogenetic provide a strong complementary insights into evolutionary history
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Biological Species Concept doesn't relate to Bacteria because they can't interbreed( no sexual reproduction)
Eukaryotic Cells: Orgins & Diversity #
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There is a diffenece in size between Eukaryotic cells and beacter because of the accelerated pace transport of nutrients and signaling molecule. This allows Euakryotic cells to be larger than bacteria
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Horizontal gene transfer has been documented in Eukaryotic cells but it is relatively uncommon; bdellioid rotifers are known for maintaining genetic diversity through horizontal gene transfer
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Diffusion is limiting in both prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells. Diffusion is effective only over a short distance so it very beneficial to prokaryoitcs such as bacteria but limiting to eukaryotics, which is why bulk flow is used in multicellular organisms
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Bulk flow can also carry developmental signals for greater distance through the body than diffusion can which can induce the formation of distinct cell types and tissue along the path of signal transport
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Seasonal temps can increase unsaturated fatty acid content of membrane as temperature drops. Little seasonal temperature can't change membrane compostion so they die when its cold
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Archeas are known for living in extreme enviroments therefore their protein would denature like other organisms that live in regular conditions(temperature)
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