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Andres Hernandez-Clemente, Period 1, Skeletal System - Coggle Diagram

- - - - Frontal bone: forehead bone
      - Parietal bone: lays on the crown of the head (the top of the head)
      - Temporal bone: located on the sides of the skull to the base of the skull
      - Nasal bone: forms the hard bridge of the nose
      - Zygomatic bone: cheek bone
      - Maxilla: upper jawbone
      - Mandible: jaw bone
      - Vomer bone: bone that divides left and right nasal cavity
      - Sphenoid bone: butterfly shaped bone that is located at the middle base of the skull, behind the eyes and the nose
      - Ethmoid bone: cranial bone located on the roof of the nose and between the eye orbits
      - Palatine bone: L-shaped facial bone located at the back of the nasal cavity between the maxilla and the sphenoid bone
      - Nasal conchae bones: bones on the lateral walls of the nasal cavity
      - Lacrimal bone: located in the front part of the medial wall of each eye socket
    - - Cervical vertebrae: neck portion of spinal cord; contains 7 bones
        
        Atlas: topmost bone of the spinal column
        
        Axis: second cervical vertebral bone in the spinal column
      - Thoracic vertebrae: 12 bones that line up the middle portion of the spinal cord
      - Lumbar vertebrae: lower back portion of spinal cord; contains 5 bones
      - Sacrum: Bone at the base of the spine
      - Coccyx: tailbone
    - - true ribs: ribs 1-7
      - false ribs: ribs 8-12
      - floating ribs: ribs 11 and 12
    - - Body of sternum: longest, middle portion of breastbone
      - Xiphoid process: small, bottom tip of the sternum
      - Manubrium: wide, upper segment of sternum
  - - - Humerus (from the shoulder to the elbow)
      - Radius: one of the two long bones in the forearm, runs on the lateral side of the body in anatomical position (the thumb side)
      - Ulna: one of the two long bones in the forearm, runs on the medial side of the body in anatomical position
      - Carpals: wrist
      - Metacarpals: inside the palm and connect the fingers to the wrist
      - Phalanges (hand): fingers
      - clavicle: collarbone
      - scapula: shoulder blade
    - - Femur: thigh bone
      - Tibia: shinbone
      - Fibula: calf bone
      - Tarsals: ankle bones
      - Patella: kneecap
      - Talus: tarsal bone connecting lower leg to the foot forming lower part of the ankle joint
      - Calcaneus: heel bone
      - Metatarsals: bones connecting toes to the ankle
      - Phalanges (digitals on the feet): toe bones
      - coxal bone (hip bone)
        
        illium: largest and upper most bone of the human pelvis
        
        ischium: posterior-inferior part of the hip bone of the pelvis
        
        pubis: anterior-inferior bone making up the front of each hip bone in the pelvis
- - - - Sternum
      - Scapula
      - Most skull bones
      - "Ribs"
- - - - Periosteum: double-layered membrane that covers the external surfaces of a bone
        
        Fibrous layer: Outer layer of dense irregular connective tissue contains Sharpey's fibers that helps secure the bone matrix
        
        Osteogenic layer: Contains osteogenic stem cells which turn into many types of bone cells
        
        Nerve fibers and blood vessels that run through the periosteum (How? Nutrient forearm openings)
    - - Endosteum which contains osteogenic cells turning into bone cells
      - Spongy bone is made up of trabeculae which is this honeycomb structure of "flat, needle-like pieces of bone"
- - - - Made up of collagen and calcium binding proteins
      - Makes up 90 percent of bone protein
  - - - Elongated cylinder running parallel to the long axis of the bone
      - contains lamellae: several rings of bone matrix
        
        contains collegen fibers running in different directions in adjacent rings
        
        withstands stress and also resists twisting
        
        bone salts found between collagen fibers
    - - Central (Haversian) canal: runs through the core of the osteon, contains blood vessels and nerve fibers
      - Perforating (Volkmann's) canals: canals lined with the endosteum occurring at right angles to the central canal
        
        Connect blood vessels and nerves of the periosteum, medullary cavity, and central canal
      - Lacunae: small cavities containing osteocytes
      - Canaliculi: hairlike canals connecting lacunae to each other and the central canal
  - - - all cell types mentioned
      - osteoid
      - sacrificial bonds: bonds between collagen molecules helping to give the bone resilience
    - - hydroxyapatites (mineral salts): helps for the hardness and resistance to compression
- - - - Secrete lysosomal enzymes and protons (H+) that digest the matrix
      - Acidity converts the calcium salts to soluble forms
      - Phagocytize the demineralized matrix and also the dead osteocytes
- - - - cartilage matrix of the repair tissue is created
      - osteoblasts form the spongy bone within the matrix
- - - - Fibrous
        
        Sutures
        
        rigid, interlocking joints of skull
        
        closed immoveable sutures referred to as synostoses
        
        example: skull bones that protect the brain
        
        Syndesmoses
        
        Bones connected by ligament bonds of fibrous tissue
        
        Example: Inferior tibiofibular joint
        
        Gomphoses
        
        Peg-in-socket joints
        
        Ex: teeth in alveolar sockets
        
        Fibrous connection called periodontal ligament
      - Cartilaginous
        
        Synchondroses
        
        Bar/plate of hyaline cartilage uniting bones
        
        Almost all are immoveable
        
        Examples: temporary epiphyseal plate joints, cartilage of 1st rib with manubrium of sternum
        
        Symphyses
        
        fibrocartilage unites bone in symphysis joint
        
        hyaline cartilage also present as articular cartilage on bony surfaces
        
        strong, amphiarthrotic joints
        
        example: intervertebral joints and pubic symphysis
      - Synovial
        
        structure
        
        articular cartilage: hyalinee cartilage covers ends of bones; prevents crushing
        
        joint (synovial cavity): small, fluid-filled space unique to the joint
        
        articular (joint) capsule
        
        external fibrous layer: dense irregular connective tissue
        
        Inner synovial membrane: loose connective tissue making synovial fluid
        
        synovial fluid: viscous, slippery filtrate of plasma and hyaluronic acid which lubricated the articular cartilage and also contains phagocytics cells that remove any debris or microbes
        
        different types of reinforcing ligaments
        
        capsular: thickened part of fibrous layer
        
        extra capsular: outside the capsule
        
        intracapsular: deep within the capsule, covered by synovial membrae
        
        nerves and blood vessels
        
        other features
        
        fatty pads: cushion fibrous layer of capsule and synovial membrane of bone
        
        articular discs (menisci): fibrocartilage separating articular surface to improve the fit of the end of the bone end, stabilize the joint, and reduce wear and tear
        
        bursae and tendon sheaths associated
        
        bursae: reduces friction
        
        tendons sheath: elongated bursae wrapping completely around the tendon
        
        allows for movements
    - - Synathroses: cannot move
      - Amphiarthroses: slightly moveable
      - Diarthroses: freely moveable
- - - - Protraction: mandible jutting out
      - Retraction: mandible pulled back
    - - Example: shoulder movement superiorly and inferiorly
- - - - Vitamin D deficiency
      - Insufficient dietary calcium in utero
  - - - Aged, postmenopausal women (WHY? Estrogen plays a role in the bone density, so estrogen's decline in production as one ages means they run a higher risk)
      - Poor diet (insufficient calcium or protein intake)
      - Smoking
      - Hormone related problems
        
        Hyperthyroidism: metabolism is sped up
        
        Diabetes mellitus
      - Insufficient exercise
      - Genetics
      - Consuming alcohol or certain medications
    - - Traditional
        
        Calcium intake
        
        Vitamin D suppluments
        
        Weight-bearing exercise
        
        Hormone replacement therapy
        
        Slows down the loss of bone
        
        Is controversial due to the hightened risk of a heart attack, stroke, or breast cancer
      - Drugs
        
        Biophosphonates
        
        Decrease osteoclast acitivity
        
        Partial reverse of osteoporosis in the spine
        
        Denosumab
        
        Monoclonal antibody that reduces fractures in men with prostate cancer
        
        Improves bone density in the elderly
    - - Include calcium in diet in early adulthood
      - Lessen consumption of carbonated beverages and also alcohol
      - Weight-bearing exercise to increase bone mass
  - - - Spine
      - Pelvis
      - Femur
      - Skull
    - - Unknown
      - Possibly viral
    - - Calcitonin: hormone that regulates calcium
      - Biophosphonates: slow down the breakdown of bone