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Small Chapters, Solar Cycles happen every 11 years, Auroras are colourful…
Small Chapters
Reactivity of Metals
Variety of Minerals
Elemental Form
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Examples: Metallic elements (Gold, silver, mercury, and platinum) and non-metallic elements (carbon and sulfur)
I. Natural compounds
- The elements that combine with other elements such as oxygen and sulfur will form compounds and become more stable
a) Compounds
- Hematite = Iron(III) Oxide/Combo of Iron and Oxygen
- Cassiterite = Tin(IV) oxide/Combo of Tin and Oxygen
- Quartz = Silicon Dioxide/Combo of Silicon and Oxygen
- Bauxite (Aluminium ore) = Aluminium oxide/Combo of Aluminium and Oxygen
- Galena (Lead ore) = Lead(II) Sulphide/Combo of lead and sulphur
- Pyrite = Iron(II) Suplhide/Combo of Iron and sulphur
- Calcite = Calcium Carbonate/ Combo of Calcium, carbon, and oxygen
b) Hardness
- Determined by scratching
- The harder the mineral, the harder it is to scratch it
- Mohs scale is used to determine hardness (Example: Calcite is 3 [weak] whilst diamonds are 10 [hard])
c) Chemical properties
- Most minerals are insoluble in water except those containing the metal elements sodium and potassium
- Minerals containing metal oxides or metal carbonates react, dissolve with acids, and release carbon dioxide gas
- Minerals containing metal oxides are more stable and do not decompose when heated but produce pure metals and carbon dioxide gas when heated with carbon
- Minerals containing metal carbonate will decompose when heated and produce metal oxides and carbon dioxide gas except sodium carbonate and potassium carbonate
- The carbon dioxide gas released will cloud the lime water
- Metal sulfides decompose when heated in air to produce metal oxides and sulfur dioxide gas
-The resulting sulfur dioxide gas has a strong odor and turns purple in an acidic solution of potassium permanganate
Usage of Minerals
- Limestone (Calcium oxide and calcium carbonate) are used in construction of roads and buildings, and for food
- Calcium carbonate is also used in blast furnaces to isolate impurities during iron extraction
- Silicon dioxide (or silica) found in sand has a high melting point (about 1,713 ° C) and is used to make glass
- Aluminum oxide is commonly found in sunscreens and in cosmetic materials such as nail polish and lipstick
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Extraction of Metals from its ore
- The process of extracting obtaining pure metal from ore
- Metal extraction can be done using more reactive metals to displace the less reactive metal from its oxide
- The thermite process is used to extract iron from iron oxide on a small scale. This reaction releases so much heat that it is able to melt iron which has a melting point of 1,538 ° C
- Metal extraction in the industry is done using two main methods, namely heating of oxide logs with carbon (cheap and easy) and electrolysis of molten metal compounds
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Thermochemistry
Endothermic
- A reaction that takes in the heat from the surroundings, causing it to be cold. Break bonds between particles
- Thermal Energy > Chemical Energy
Examples: Baking a cake, ice packs, ethanoic acid (vinegar) and sodium carbonate (baking soda) to produce sodium ethanoate, water, and carbon dioxide, photosynthesis
Chemical Mixtures
- Ammonium nitrate in water
- Potassium chloride in water
- Potassium nitrate in water
- Ammonium chloride in water
- Ethanoic acid and Sodium carbonate
Exothermic
- A reaction that releases heat into the surroundings
- Chemical energy > Thermal energy
Example: Combustion, Neutralization, Oxidization, Respiration
Chemical Mixtures
- Potassium hydroxide in water
- Sodium hydroxide in water
Space Exploration
Astronomy
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Figures
Ptolemy
- Created a Geocentric theory that has a perfectly circle orbit
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Kepler
- Use heliocentric theory but the orbit is elliptical
- The planets move slower away from the sun but moves faster when near
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Space Weathers
Layers
Convection Zone
- After the Radiation Zone
- Plasma is a gas that conducts electrical currents
- Photons entering the convection zone causes an outward vortex
- The flow of energy moves in a vortex forming convective cells as in a boiling kettle
Photosphere
- Can be seen with a telescope
- Temp is 6000 C degree
- Sunlight that can be seen is the photosphere
- Convection occurs due to explosion on the sun's surface
Radiation Zone
- After the core
- Energy from the core comes as photons to the Radiation Zone
- Extends 70% of the core
- Some stars don't have radiation zones and its size varies
Core
- Deepest layer
- 15 million C degree
- Allows thermonuclear to take place
- The source of energy
Chromosphere
- 4,400 to 25,000 C degree
- Chromosphere appears as a red circle around the moon during eclipse. The red colour is produced by hydrogen gas at high temperatures
Corona
- Outer layer
- Forms a white circle during eclipse
- 1 million C degree
Space Weather
I. Granules
II. Sunspots
III. Solar flares
IV. Bright solar
V. Coronal Mass Ejections
VI. Solar wind
VII. Prominence
Magnetosphere
- Earth's magnetic field that's generated from an electric current generated from the movement of a convective current of molten iron in the Earth's outer core
- The shape of the Earth’s magnetosphere is produced by the Earth’s magnetic field that protects the Earth from solar angina from the Sun
- The effect of no Earth's atmosphere is that air will disappear from the Earth's surface, water will not exist in liquid form, and harmful ultraviolet radiation will reach directly to the Earth's surface because there is no ozone layer
Technological Issues
I. Telecommunication interference
II. Navigation system interference
III. Grid power line interference
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Auroras are colourful lights seen in the south pole and north pole caused by Solar wind and the Magnetosphere
Minerals are natural substances that have a fixed chemical composition and are usually found in rocks that exist in the form of elements or compounds
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