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202 for test 2, Cultural evolution, Cross-cultural psychology, Cultural…

- - - - Adaptive evolution occurs thru diff survival of competing alleles
      - Genes: "not just the centre of the cell but the centre of all life, agency, and behaviour"
      - Genetic evolution:
        
        A change in allele frequencies within a population.
      - Gene expression:
        
        Genotype
        
        Phenotype
    - - is the behaviour an adaptation?
        
        yes
        
        is the behaviour adaptive?
        
        yes
        
        Current adaptation: remains adaptive bc of continuity in the selwective environment
        
        no
        
        Past adaptation: no longer adaptive bc of a change in the selective environment
        
        functional behaviour that increments reproductive successs
        
        no
        
        is the behaviour adaptive?
        
        yes
        
        Exaptation: Now enhances fitness but not built by natural selection for its current role
        
        no
        
        By-product (spandrel): Neither enhances fitness nor was built by natural selection
        
        character favoured by natural selection for its efectiveness in a particular role
    - - Lamarck theoried that species made gradual changes to adapt for benefit/goal. E.g. necks grew so they could reach higher food
    - - Variation +
        
        TIME
        
        Evolution
      - Inheritance +
      - Selection +
  - - - Environment tells us which tool to use, the environment shapes how we develop a particular skill, we have all the cognitive capacity, but environment chooses which
  - - - Cultural traits are transmitted and inherited within groups through processes that are analogous to but distinct from genetic inheritance
      - Selection forces also act on cultural traits
  - - - Hene-culture co-evolution
      - Cultural adaptation
      - Cultural transmission
- - - - It is argued that our capacity for cumulative culture has set our genus on an evolutionary pathway remarkably distinct from the one traversed by all other species.
  - - - Children/adults interpret a behaviour as an instrumental act if the physical-causal basis of an action is potentially knowable, even if it is currently unknown (as would be the case for novice learners)
      - Children/Adults interpret a behaviour as a ritual act if it cannot be understood from the perspective of physical causality and instead is based on social conventionality
      - Behaviours are often interpreted as primarily instrumental versus conventional as a matter of degree rather than of kind
      - When imitating instrumental behaviour the focal point of imitation is the end-goal; when imitating conventional behaviour, the focal point of imitation is the process and the normative execution of the behaviour
    - - Verbal
      - Causal opacity
      - Consensus
      - Synchrony
  - - - The period following the cessation of breastfeeding in humans is characterised by the following six traits:
        
        Slow and steady rate of body growth and relatively small body size
        
        Large, fast-growing brain
        
        Higher resting metabolic rate than any other mammalian species
        
        Immature dentition
        
        Dependence on older people for care and feeding
        
        Motor and cognitive advances
      - Bogin (1990):
        
        Slow somatic growth and delayed sexual maturation result in a relatively small body and greater dependency of the human child during the early learning years than is the case for nonhuman primates
        
        These growth patterns help establish teacher-student roles that remain stable for a decade or more allowing a great deal of learning, practice , and modification of survival skills to occur
        
        It also allows for the integration of separately learned behaviours that may be creatively recombined by the individual and result in novel behaviours, suitable for situations that have never been encountered before or for changes in the physical or social environment not foreseen by teachers
    - - This extended period and the developmental patterns of the human brain associated with it provide an opportunity for extensive learning and for sophisticated cultural behaviours to develop
- - - - Ritual showing commitment to gods/religion in india
    - - Found higher ordeal (more extreme kavadi) lead to higher offerings to local community (cooperation), as a function of perceived pain.
  - - - Method: Mathematical modelling
        
        Use mathematical models to map out how adaptive dynamics work; breaks complex systems into smaller pieces easier for human minds to understand
        
        Mathematical models…
        
        Use numbers to be specific, providing a clear language to articulate specific theories
        
        Are equations used to formulate a theory or hypothesis abt how a researcher thinks the world works
        
        The use of hammers = 1 when there are 100 nails can be mathematically modelled as:
        
        H = .1/n
        
        Henrich, J. (2004) designed a mathematical model to describe demography and technology in Tasmania. His model suggests that:
        
        When the population falls below a threshold, complex skills begin to get lost because specialists are no longer around to carry the knowledge
  - - - Method: Population genetics
        
        Use genetic testing to map out a distribution of genetic variants; combined with cultural info to associate genes with cultural behaviours, traits, settings, practices, etc.
        
        Example: Lactose tolerance and dairy farming
        
        The genes spread in the population following the cultural innovation of milk production through dairy farming.
        
        Population genetics and culture-gene co-evolution has led to the study of genetic affinities between Kennewick Man and a panel of worldwide populations. This has shown that Kennewick Man is
        
        More like north American Indians than other groups
  - - - Method: Comparative cognition, experiments; Learning / teaching & development
        
        Compare cognitive mechanisms across development and across species
        
        Culture in non-human animals (chimps, dolphins, orcas):
        
        Chimps: hunt termites thru learned tool use
        
        Dolphins: forage using sponges
        
        Orcas: Beach when hunting seals
        
        These are cultural behaviours because they are learned and perpetuated only within particular groups of these species
    - - Social learning:
        
        Gain new info thru observation or instruction
      - Socially-learned info specific to a particular cultural group
      - Chimp cultural learning
        
        Chimps learn thru close observation
        
        Young chimps learn by watching mother while mother goes abt her normal business
      - Cognitive mechanisms for human cultural learning
        
        Imitation, emulation, and over-imitation
        
        Imitation vs. emulation
        
        Imitation:
        
        Social learning by internalising the model's goals and taking on the model's perspective
        
        Emulation:
        
        Social learning by focusing on the environmental events surrounding a model's behaviours, regardless of model's intent or perspective
        
        Chimps almost always emulate rather than imitate because they are not concerned abt the model's goals (i.e. not using theory of mind).
        
        Over-imitation: imitating even seemingly irrelevant model behaviours
        
        Opaque vs clear box study
        
        chimps and kids imitate when the box is opaque to get treat
        
        Only kids imitate when the box is transparent to get treat
        
        Shared intentionality, over-imitation, and accumulated cultural learning
        
        Culturally-learned info accumulates over time without losing earlier cultural info, leading to:
        
        Cultural evolution
        
        e.g. over generations, cultural forms like hammers evolve from stone to steam
        
        Ratchet effect:
        
        Cultural information grows in complexity over time
        
        Cognitive mechanisms like over-imitation enable this accumulation of cultural learning into cumulative cultural evolution by supporting learners in learning non-obvious, causally opaque information.
        
        Theory of mind:
        
        The ability to attribute mental states to self and others AND the understanding that others can have mental states that differ from one's own
        
        Has cultural aspects but a strong degree of cultural universality as well
        
        How can we learn abt theory of mind and cultural evolution?
        
        Comparative cognition
        
        Shared intentionality & joint attention:
        
        Humans readily direct each other's attention to a single object from 12 months old in nearly every society that we know of, this is…
        
        Joint attention
        
        Both attending to the same thing at the same time
        
        Allows people to…
        
        Share intentionality
        
        1 more item...
        
        Key gestures:
        
        The point, noticing another's eye gaze direction and looking at the same thing as them
        
        These are social learning cues
- - - - Started from non-replication
      - Basic dimensions (1980)
        
        Individualism
        
        Power distance
        
        Uncertainty avoidance
        
        Masculinity
      - More recent addition (2001)
      - Individualism vs collectivism
        
        Antecedents (to individualism):
        
        Greater economic development
        
        Greater social mobility
        
        Moderate to cold climates
        
        More modern industry and urbanisation
        
        Outcomes (of individualism):
        
        Less helpfulness, need for affiliation, conformity, sensitivity to others, conflict avoidance, compromising, and agreeableness
        
        More independence, entrepreneurial behaviour, confrontation, self-promotion, competitiveness, self-esteem, self-efficacy
      - Power distance
        
        Antecedents:
        
        Warm climates
        
        Agricultural, less modern industry
        
        Low social mobility
        
        Less national wealth
        
        Centralisation of political power
        
        Occupation, colonialism, imperialism
        
        Outcomes:
        
        More organisational commitment, sensitivity to others, trust, conformity, preference for directive leader.
        
        Less display of emotions, feedback seeking, preference for participative leader, self-esteem.
      - Uncertainty avoidance
        
        Antecedents (low uncertainty avoidance):
        
        Modernising, high rate of social change
        
        Younger democracies
        
        Sparse populations in poor countries, dense populations in wealthy countries
        
        Outcomes (uncertainty avoidance):
        
        More sensitivity to others, organisational commitment, conformity, preference for teamwork, preference for directive leadership (correlation with power distance)
        
        Less innovation, less preference for participative leadership
    - - Strength of social norms and the degree to which deviant behaviour is tolerated
      - "Tight" =
        
        Strong norms, low tolerance for deviance
        
        Associated with ecological sources of threat and strength of institutions
      - Systems model of cultural tightness:
      - Tight cultures: country level antecedents
        
        Ecological threats
        
        High population density
        
        Fewer natural resources
        
        More natural disasters
        
        Higher infant & child mortality rates
      - Tight cultures: country level outcomes
        
        Autocratic rule
        
        Media/press restrictions
        
        More policing
        
        Fewer rights
        
        Lower crime
        
        More religious
      - Tight cultures: individual level outcomes
        
        More self monitoring
        
        More cautious
        
        More dutiful
        
        Greater impulse control
        
        Greater need for structure
    - - Defining features:
        
        Values as beliefs
        
        Evaluation standards to make sense of the world
        
        Structured motivational goals
      - 4 key categories of values:
        
        Openess to change
        
        self-transcendence
        
        self-enhancement
        
        conservation
      - Economic development and cultural values
        
        Value group: Conservation & Self-enhancement
        
        Value components
        
        Security
        
        Tradition
        
        Conformity
        
        Achievement & power
        
        Economic impact
        
        Public sector focus
        
        Emphasis on public goods
        
        Private venture capital suppressed
        
        Value group: Openness to change & Self-transcendence
        
        Value components
        
        Self-direction
        
        Simulation
        
        Universalism
        
        Benevolence
        
        Economic impact
        
        Private sector growth
        
        Independent start-ups
        
        Creative market disruptions
      - How do values develop and change?
        
        Macro:
        
        Exposure to ecology and institutions
        
        Micro:
        
        Life stages & personal circumstances
- - - - Construct bias
        
        Incomplete overlap of definitions of the construct across cultures
        
        Differential appropriateness of (sub)test content
        
        e.g. skills do not belong to the repertoire of one of the cultural groups
        
        Poor sampling of all relevant behaviours
        
        Incomplete coverage of the construct
        
        E.g. not all relevant domains are sampled
        
        Marshmallow test & construct bias:
        
        Brain scan studies w the original cohort of children show that 'waiters' had less reward activation than 'non-waiters', indicating the meaning of the test may be fundamentally different between the two groups.
    - - Method bias
        
        Differential social desirability
        
        Differential response styles such as extremity scoring and acquiescence
        
        Differential stimulus familiarity
        
        Lack of comparability of samples
        
        e.g. differences in educational background, age, or gender composition
        
        Diffs in physical/social conditions of administration
        
        Differential familiarity w response procedures
        
        Tester/interviewer effects
        
        Communication problems between respondent and tester/interviewer in either cultural group
        
        Yanny/laurel & method bias
        
        Showing two written words for us to read primes us to hear one or the other. Otherwise we may have heard something completely different.
        
        In a test to identify the word a speaker was intended to say, the overlay of higher pitched sounds biases the test against hearers who are more likely to detect the higher pitches.
    - - Item bias
        
        Poor translation/formulation
        
        Nuisance factors
        
        e.g. items may invoke additional traits or abilities
        
        Incidental diffs in appropriateness
        
        e.g. school curriculum in one group
        
        Cultural specifics
        
        e.g. connotative meaning, general appropriateness
  - - - Behaviours investigated on a measure has the same purpose and meaning in the cultures sampled (free of construct bias)
    - - Individual scores from the cultures sampled should be indicative of the same psychological meaning (free of measure and item bias)
  - - - Measurement invariance (Need first 3 for comparison)
        
        Configural invariance (no. of factors)
        
        Metric invariance (unit of scale)
        
        Scalar invariance (origin of scale)
        
        Error variance invariance (precision of a scale)
      - Structural invariance
        
        Factor covariance invariance
        
        Factor variance invariance
        
        Factor mean invariance
      - Configural invariance = same structure
        
        when this happens, this means that the qs are getting at the same underlying latent factors (or underlying contructs) in all measured groups)
      - Metric invariance = same factor loadings
        
        the loadings are the slipe in these models. That means they show how much 1 unit change in the underlying factor will make 1 unit change in the observed indicator. This means the factors all relate to the same items in the same way
        
        FAILED metric invariance = DIFFERENT factor loadings
        
        when the loadings and the intercepts are different (different slope)
      - Scalar invariance = Same item intercepts
        
        FAILED scalar invariance = DIFFERENT item intercepts
        
        SUCCESSFUL scalar invariance = SAME loadings & intercepts
      - Error variance invariance = same 'noise' in the data
    - - These covariances create a latent factor, a variable that is inferred from the observed indicators.
        
        We cannot see the latent factor directly, but the maths shows it in the covariances of the answers to the questions asked in the test.
- - - - In the village, formal schooling is admired, but
        
        Not associated w traditional success
        
        Not seen as intrinsically valuable
      - Children learn most by seeing, doing, and imitating
        
        Direct teaching happens when the skill is difficult, or the rule (e.g. etiquette) is not obvious
- - - - Teacher allows close observation, but does not modify their behaviour
    - - Teacher modifies the learning material
    - - Teacher directs learner to a stimulus that the learner might not otherwise approach
    - - Teacher provides positive or negative feedback
    - - Teacher actively presents specific knowledge content to learner
      - Unique to humans
  - - - In villages, education is valued but they don't teach village life skills in school
- - - - Influenced by our relational schemas
      - Relational attunement:
        
        the extent to which one attends to social and emotional cues
      - Monitoring relationality:
        
        Emotional cues
        
        Verbal and non-verbal language cues
    - - Positive: coping benefits mitigate perception of ostracism
      - People may choose parasocial relationships over IRL relationships
    - - Tall poppy syndrome:
        
        Urge to criticise anyone who stands out
      - Good chap culture:
        
        Modesty, mate ship, fitting in
      - Together, they keep social behaviour flat and equal