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Chapter Four: Theories in Scientific Research - Coggle Diagram
Chapter Four:
Theories in Scientific Research
Theories:
explanations of a natural or social behavior, event, or phenomenon.
A scientific theory is a system of constructs and propositions that collectively presents a logical, systematic, and coherent explanation of a phenomenon of interest within some assumptions and boundary conditions
Theories should explain why things happen, rather than just describe or predict.
Predictions only require correlations; explanations require causations.
can be empirically tested using scientific methods
Idiographic explanations:
explain a single situation or event in idiosyncratic detail
ex: I failed my test because I forgot to study
nomothetic explanations:
seek to explain a class of situations or events rather than a specific situation or event
ex: students who do poorly in exams do so because they did not spend adequate time preparing for exams
Benefits of Using Theories in Research
theories provide the underlying logic for the occurrence of natural or social phenomena
they aid in sense-making by helping us synthesise prior empirical findings within a theoretical framework and reconcile contradictory findings
provide guidance for future research by helping identify constructs and relationships that are worthy of further research
can contribute to cumulative knowledge building by bridging gaps between other theories and by causing existing theories to be re-evaluated in a new light
A theory is not data, facts, typologies, taxonomies, or empirical findings
explanations of reality, theories may not always provide adequate explanations of the phenomenon of interest based on a limited set of constructs and relationships
Building Blocks of a Theory
Constructs:
abstract concepts specified at a high level of abstraction that are chosen specifically to explain the phenomenon of interest
can be unidimensional or multidimensional;
Variables:
Measurable representations of abstract constructs
ex: IQ Score measures intelligence
Propositions:
associations postulated between constructs based on deductive logic. Propositions are stated in declarative form and should ideally indicate a cause-effect relationship
may be conjectural but must be testable, and should be rejected if they are not supported by empirical observations
hypotheses:
empirical formulation of propositions, stated as relationships between variables
Logic:
provides the basis for justifying the propositions as postulated. Logic acts like a ‘glue’ that connects the theoretical constructs and provides meaning and relevance to the relationships between these constructs
represents the ‘explanation’ that lies at the core of a theory
all theories are constrained by
assumptions
about values, time, and space
boundary conditions
govern where the theory can be applied and where it cannot be applie
Attributes of a Good Theory
Logical consistency:
Are the theoretical constructs, propositions, boundary conditions, and assumptions logically consistent with each other?
Explanatory power:
How much does a given theory explain (or predict) reality?
Falsifiability:
for theories to be valid, they must be falsifiable. Falsifiability ensures that the theory is potentially disprovable, if empirical data does not match with theoretical propositions, which allows for their empirical testing by researchers
Parsimony:
examines how much of a phenomenon is explained with how few variables; the simplest theory is the best
Approaches to Theorizing
build theories inductively based on observed patterns of events or behaviors; ‘grounded theory building’; grounded in empirical observation
conduct a bottom-up conceptual analysis to identify different sets of predictors relevant to the phenomenon of interest using a predefined framework
extend or modify existing theories to explain a new context, such as by extending theories of individual learning to explain organizational learning
apply existing theories in entirely new contexts by drawing upon the structural similarities between the two contexts; relies on reasoning by analogy; most creative way of theorizing by deduction
Examples of social science theories
Agency Theory:
organizational economics; explain two-party relationships—such as those between an employer and its employees, between organizational executives and shareholders, and between buyers and sellers—whose goals are not congruent with each other
human beings are self-interested individuals, boundedly rational, and risk-averse; can be applied at the individual or organizational level
Theory of Planned Behavior:
social psychology; presumes that individual behavior represents conscious reasoned choice, and is shaped by cognitive thinking and social pressures
behaviors are based on one’s intention regarding that behavior, which in turn is a function of the person’s attitude toward the behavior, subjective norm regarding that behavior, and perception of control over that behavior
extension of an earlier theory called the theory of reasoned action, which included attitude and subjective norm as key drivers of intention, but not behavioral control
Innovation Diffusion Theory:
communications; explains how innovations are adopted within a population of potential adopters
innovation
communication channels
time
social system
diffusion process starts off slow among a few early adopters, then picks up speed as the innovation is adopted by the mainstream population, and finally slows down as the adopter population reaches saturation
Elaboration Likelihood Model:
psychology; explains how individuals can be influenced to change their attitude toward a certain object, event, or behavior and the relative efficacy of such change strategies
one’s attitude may be shaped by two ‘routes’ of influence: the central route and the peripheral route
central route
requires a person to think about issue-related arguments in an informational message and carefully scrutinize the merits and relevance of those arguments, before forming an informed judgment
central or peripheral routes depends upon person's ability and motivation to elaborate the central merits of an argument. This ability and motivation to elaborate is called
elaboration likelihood
peripheral route
subjects rely on external ‘cues’ such as number of prior users, endorsements from experts, or likeability of the endorser, rather than on the quality of arguments, in framing their attitude
General Deterrence Theory:
both an explanation of crime and a method for reducing it; examines why certain individuals engage in deviant, anti-social, or criminal behaviors
people are fundamentally rational (for both conforming and deviant behaviors), and that they freely choose deviant behaviors based on a rational cost-benefit calculation
criminal’s personal situation— personal values, affluence, need for money—and the environmental context—how protected the target is, how efficient the local police are, how likely criminals are to be apprehended—play key roles in this decision-making process
focus of GDT is not how to rehabilitate criminals and avert future criminal behaviors, but how to make criminal activities less attractive and therefore prevent crimes
Swiftness, severity, and certainty of punishments are the key constructs in GDT