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SOCIAL SCIENCE RESEARCH — CHAPTERS 1 & 2 - Coggle Diagram
SOCIAL SCIENCE RESEARCH — CHAPTERS 1 & 2
CHAPTER 1 — SCIENCE & SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH
FOUNDATIONS OF SCIENCE
Science
Systematic, organized knowledge
Built through the scientific method
Major forms
Natural science — studies natural phenomena
Social science — studies people and social behavior
Basic science — explains fundamental laws
Applied science — uses knowledge in practice
Scientific knowledge
Laws — observed patterns
Theories — systematic explanations
Logic/theory + evidence/observation are the two pillars
Theory gives meaning to observations
Observations validate or refine theory
HOW RESEARCH WORKS
Two research levels
Theoretical — develops abstract concepts and relationships
Empirical — tests ideas against observations
Research moves back and forth between both levels
Induction
Starts with observations
Builds patterns and theory
Useful when prior theory is limited
Deduction
Starts with theory
Tests ideas with new empirical data
Can support, reject, or refine theory
Research cycle
Induction = theory building
Deduction = theory testing
Both are needed for scientific progress
SCIENTIFIC METHOD
Purpose
Make valid observations
Interpret results
Generalize findings
Four standards
Replicability — repeatable results
Precision — clearly defined concepts
Falsifiability — can be disproven
Parsimony — simplest adequate explanation
Common approaches
Experiments
Field surveys
Case research
Ethnography / action research
PURPOSES OF RESEARCH
Exploratory
Scopes a new problem
Generates initial ideas
Tests feasibility
Descriptive
Describes what, where, and when
Uses careful, replicable observation
Explanatory
Asks why and how
Identifies causes and outcomes
Common in academic and doctoral research
CHAPTER 2 — THINKING LIKE A RESEARCHER
FRAME THE STUDY
Unit of analysis
Person, collective, or object being studied
May be an individual
May be a group or organization
May be a country, object, technology, crime, neighborhood, or dyad
Why it matters
Determines what data should be collected
Determines who or what provides the data
Determines the level of measurement
MOVE FROM IDEAS TO MEASUREMENT
Concepts
Generalizable properties or characteristics
May be concrete or abstract
Constructs
Abstract concepts used to explain phenomena
May be unidimensional
May be multidimensional
Require precise definitions
Operational definitions
State exactly how a construct will be measured
Connect abstract ideas to observation
Variables
Measurable representations of constructs
Example: intelligence → IQ score
Construct = theoretical plane
Variable = empirical plane
DEFINE VARIABLE ROLES
Independent variable
Explains or predicts another variable
Dependent variable
Outcome being explained
Mediating variable
Links the independent and dependent variables
Moderating variable
Changes the strength or direction of the relationship
Control variable
Extraneous influence that must be accounted for
Nomological network
Overall network of relationships among constructs
TEST RELATIONSHIPS
Propositions
Tentative relationships between constructs
Exist on the theoretical plane
Can be derived through induction or deduction
Hypotheses
Empirical versions of propositions
Relate measurable variables
Should identify independent and dependent variables
Stronger hypotheses specify direction and causality
BUILD EXPLANATIONS
Theory
System of related constructs and propositions
Explains and predicts phenomena
Is not automatically truth
Can be improved or replaced
Model
Represents all or part of a system
Theory explains; model represents
May be mathematical, network, or path based
May be descriptive, predictive, or normative
May be static or dynamic
HOW THE CHAPTERS CONNECT
Chapter 1 explains how science builds knowledge
Chapter 2 explains how researchers turn abstract ideas into measurable evidence
Theory → constructs → operational definitions → variables → hypotheses → observations
Evidence then supports, rejects, or refines theory