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Eco Friendly Lithium-Ion Battery Pack Used in PSA's Electric Automated…
Eco Friendly Lithium-Ion Battery Pack
Used in PSA's Electric Automated Guided Vehicles
USAGE
Electric Vehicles
BYD & Tesla
E-Scooter & E-Bikes
Electric Buses & Taxis
PSA Port Automated Guided Vehicles (AGVs)
Aerospace Vehicles & Drones
Drone Batteries
Airplane Backup Batteries
Surveillance Drones (SAF)
Urban drone delivery (SingPost parcel delivery drones)
Personal Electronics
Powerbanks
Phones
Laptops
Station Energy Storages
PSA Pasir Panjang BEES
PSA Second Life Battery
HDB / JTC industrial backup systems
Environmental Impacts
Electricity Consumption
Requires constant charging from the power grid, which often relies on fossil fuels, indirectly contributing to carbon emissions during its operational life.
Potential Improvements / Solutions
Smart BMS (Battery Management System)
Benefits
Extended Lifespan
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Consequence
If the software fails, the battery might shut down completely, causing the user to replace the whole pack earlier than planned
Second-Life Repurposing
Benefits
Waste Reduction
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Consequence
Transporting old, risky batteries to a new site uses fossil fuels; if safety testing fails, they could catch fire.
Optimized Charging Habits
Benefits
Slower Degradation
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Consequence
Users might run out of battery during emergencies and ignore the habit, making the improvement useless in real life
Advanced Cooling Systems
Benefits
Lower Energy Waste
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Consequence
Adding liquid cooling makes the battery pack heavier, which increases the energy needed to move the device
Modular Design
Benefits
Reduced E-Waste
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Consequence
Removable/swappable batteries require a thicker outer casing, meaning more raw plastic/metal is used during manufacturing.
High upfront cost for purchase and installation.
OTHER CONSIDERATIONS
Economic
High upfront cost for purchase and installation.
Long-term savings on fuel and electricity bills over the lifespan.
Battery degradation forces early device replacement (cost to consumers)
Social
Creates quieter and cleaner urban environments (replaces noisy diesel engines)
Improves public health by reducing local air pollution
Relies on user behavior (e.g., charging habits) to achieve maximum lifespan.
Policy
Essential infrastructure for meeting national renewable energy targets (e.g., Singapore Green Plan 2030).
Requires strict safety regulations (fire prevention, thermal runaway).
Mandatory e-waste recycling schemes (Extended Producer Responsibility).
This frequent charging causes heat generation
Heat Generation
Releases significant waste heat during charge and discharge cycles, requiring extra energy for cooling systems to prevent overheating.
The ongoing Heat Generation stresses the internal chemistry, which directly accelerates Capacity Degradation
Capacity Degradation
Battery performance drops by 20–30% over its lifespan, making it less efficient over time and shortening the device's usable life.
Because the capacity has degraded, the user is forced to charge the battery even more often.
E-Waste Generation
Once the battery degrades beyond usability, it becomes toxic electronic waste that is difficult to recycle and often ends up in landfills.
Fire & Toxicity Risks
Damaged or improperly disposed batteries can leak harmful chemicals or catch fire, posing serious hazards to the environment and public safety.
Grid Dependency
The environmental benefit of the battery is heavily tied to how the electricity it consumes is generated (renewable vs. fossil fuels).
Data Center UPS backups (Equinix)
SP Group Smart Grid Batteries
WHAT HAPPENS?
The assembled battery pack is installed into devices, EVs, or grid systems, where it undergoes daily charge and discharge cycles to store and supply electrical energy until it degrades.
RAW MATERIAL EXTRACTION
Nickel
mined to increase battery energy density.
Cobalt
mined to improve thermal stability and battery lifespan.
Lithium
extracted from brine or hard rock; stores and transfers electrical energy.
Graphite
Nickel: mined to increase battery energy density.
ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS
High water consumption
Large amounts of water are used, especially for lithium extraction from brine.
Habitat destruction & biodiversity loss
Mining clears land, disrupting ecosystems and wildlife habitats.
Greenhouse gas emissions
Mining equipment and mineral processing consume energy and emit CO₂.
POTENTIAL IMPROVEMENTS / SOLUTIONS
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OTHER CONSIDERATIONS
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Land degradation
Open-pit mining can cause soil erosion and permanently alter landscapes.
Resource depletion
Lithium, nickel and cobalt are finite resources, so excessive extraction can reduce future availability.
The solution is to Increase the use of recycled material to recover these metals.
The Benefits state this Conserves finite resources and Reduces the need for new mining
Copper
mined for electrical current collectors and wiring.
Aluminum
extracted for current collectors and the battery casing.
WHAT HAPPENS?
Critical minerals are extracted, processed and refined into battery-grade materials for lithium-ion battery manufacturing.
END OF LIFE
Battery collection
Batteries are collected through approved recycling or waste management systems.
Battery dismantling
Battery packs are safely disassembled into individual components.
Environmental Impacts
Greenhouse gas emissions
Battery transport and recycling consume energy, generating emissions if powered by fossil fuels.
POTENTIAL IMPROVEMENTS / SOLUTIONS
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OTHER CONSIDERATIONS
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Fire risk
Damaged batteries may undergo thermal runaway, increasing fire risks during storage, transport and recycling.
Loss of valuable resources
Landfilling batteries prevents recovery of lithium, nickel and cobalt, increasing demand for new mining.
To solve this, the potential Improvement is to expand battery recycling.
Landfill pollution
Landfilled batteries waste recoverable materials and increase long-term environmental risks.
This lack of recycling leads directly back to Landfill pollution,which reinforces the Loss of valuable resources, sending the entire cycle back to the start.
Hazardous waste
Improper disposal can contaminate soil and groundwater with hazardous substances.
Material recovery
Lithium, nickel, cobalt, copper and aluminum are recovered through recycling processes.
Second-life applications
Batteries with sufficient capacity can be reused for stationary energy storage.
Safe disposal
Materials that cannot be recovered are disposed of according to environmental regulations.
WHAT HAPPENS?
End of life lithium-ion batteries are evaluated for second-life reuse or recycling, allowing valuable materials to be recovered and reducing the need for new raw material extraction.
MANUFACTURING
1.Electrode mixing which uses active material powder mixed with solvent to form a slurry
2.Coating & drying which uses slurry spread onto foil and dried in long ovens to evaporate solvent
3.Calendering & slitting uses coated foil compressed between rollers to set density and cut into strips sized for the cell
4.Cell Assembly uses anode and cathode strips layered with separator between them and placed into casing
5.Electrolyte fill & formation uses liquid electrolyte injected into sealed cells which slow charges/discharges cycling to form protective layer on electrodes
6.Pack assembly finishes cells grouped into modules, wired together and paired with battery management system (BMS) for charge, temperature, safety monitoring and housed in final pack casing
Environmental Impacts
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WHAT HAPPENS?
Raw materials are converted into battery cells through electrode mixing, coating, cell assembly, electrolyte filling, and final pack assembly in energy-intensive factories.