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The Administration of the Empire, this is what made Pierre Briant talk…
The Administration of the Empire
Satraps and Satrapies
the lands of the Persian empire were administered as provinces, or satrapies, headed by a satrap
we see the word used in the Bisitun Inscription, and in Herodotus
satraps had already been appointed at the time of Cyrus II and Cambyses II
e.g. Cyrus had installed Gobryas as governor of Babylonia
e.g. Cambyses installed Aryandes as satrap of Egypt (Hdt 4.166)
the word in Old Persian literally means 'protector of the realm'
this important office was given only to Persian nobles, who were often relatives of the King
e.g. satrap of Bactria
Masistes, son of Darius I, made satrap (HDT 9)
then, son of Xerxes, Hystaspes, made satrap (Dio Sic 11)
Certain regions - Cilicia, Caria, Lycia, and Cyprus - were administered by local dynasts or non-persian satraps
under Darius I, Pixodarus of Cindya made king of Cilicia (HDT 5)
as time goes on there are more non-persian satraps, could reflect increasing trust, or a sign of weakness
e.g. Belsunu from Babylonia (typical Babylonian name), becomes satrap 'Beyond the River' (west of the Euphrates river) - he is promoted beyond the region
Themistocles as satrap of Magnesia, welcomed by Artaxerxes (Thuc 1.138)
a range of high officials would be employed in the service of the satrap, ensuring the collection and recording of the tribute, the recording of legal affairs, and the security of the satrapy
disloyalty
was punished severely, because satrapal loyalty to the king was crucial to the existence of the empire
Aryandes, the satrap of Egypy (Hdt 4.166) overstepped his authority when he minted his own coins, 'trying to make himself equal to Darius' and was killed
What did they do?
Military
Arrian, Anabasis, 1.12
describes satrapal troops preparing to face Alexander after his crossing to Asia (334 BC)
taxation and tribute
tribute was calculated according to each region's productive capacity
HDT 3.90 - records different provinces giving different amounts
tribute could be in metal or in kind - Babylonians send young boys, Cilicians send horses
Herodotus attributes the fixing of tribute to Darius - under Cyrus and Cambyses there had been no fixed tribute, instead payment was made in gifts (HDT 3.89)
this probably just means the system became more formalised under Darius
Tissaphernes, satrap of Lydia and Caria
cant raise tribute during PP war from Greek towns locally as the Athenians had been interfering
he tries to ally with the Spartans instead - showing the need for taxation had wide-ranging diplomatic effects
Thucydides 8.5.5
tax receipt from Nippur, 420, has one soldier paying tax in beer, sheep, bread, flour, barley, and silver
the
pihatu
- governor
VS 4 152
cuneiform tablet from the Tattanu archive, dated to 502
the note records a financial transaction and lists 'the slave of Tattannu the governor of Across-the-River' as one of the witnesses
Historians widely agree that this Tattannu is the exact same person as Tattenai, the Persian governor of the province "Beyond-The-River" mentioned in the biblical books of Ezra and Nehemiah
significance as evidence for women's agency
"the house...is the pledge of Abesukku" (a woman)
"there shall be no rent for the house and no interest on the silver"
"until the appointed time, the house is at the disposal of Abesukku; she will live in it"
"She will renew the roof and will carry out the repair work to the foundation walls"
"three staircases, large and small, are at her disposal until the appointed time"
Ezra 5.2-5
"at that time, Tattenai, governor of Across-the-River, and Satibarzanes and their associates went to them and asked: "who authorised you to rebuild this temple and restore this structure?"
"they were not stopped until a report should go to Darius I and his written reply be received"
significance:
Tattenai was governor of the region Across-the-River (Syria-Palestine)
the passage from Ezra shows that he had authority over affairs in the Persian province of Judah - he needed to ensure the Jewish community had permission to carry out the building work (as Cyrus II had originally authorised)
Mania of Dardanus
Xenophon, Hellenika, 3.1.11-12
describes someone named Zenis of Dardanus acting as a satrap within a larger satrapy that has a main satrap named Pharnabazus
shows that being satrap had multiple meanings
when Zenis dies, his wife Mania asks to take over his role, and succeeds
BM 74554
Babylonian text documenting the transfer of 14 kur of barley from Babylon back to the crown - a receipt
mentions 'the governor of Babylon and Across-the-River"
this was a huge satrapal administration, joining Babylonia to Western satrapies under one official
dated to October 486 - the end of the reign of Darius I
the document describes officials under the satrap - a scribe and chancellor
this demonstrates how satrapal government actually worked
They probably handled the written orders that allowed routine transactions to happen
The governor’s authority was exercised through documents, orders, scribes, and bureaucratic intermediaries
The man who receives the barley is Siha
he is described as an overseer of a work-house or labour institution
He receives the barley and is responsible for entering it into
the crown ledger
This is useful because it shows the chain of administration below the satrapal level
significance for the economy:
Siha enters the information into the crown ledger
The empire was not only collecting taxes or dues; it was recording them in a structured accounting system
Payments could be made in silver, but also in goods such as barley, dates, flour, wine, oil, and other produce
when we talk of 'taxation' we should not think only of coins
The crown ledger shows that imperial revenue was tracked. Officials needed to know who owed what, who had paid, and what still remained outstanding
In BM 74554, the governor’s authority stands behind the transaction, but the actual process involves subordinate officials: scribe-chancellors, Siha as recipient, witnesses, and a scribe
the economy worked through chains of delegated authority
Conception of the Peoples of Empire
example - Bisitun Inscription
section 6, Darius lists 23 lands
these reflect the lands conquered by Cyrus and Cambyses, as the Bisitun inscription was set up early in Darius' reign
in several inscriptions, the Persian kings list the lands they have dominion over - see DPe from Persepolis.
each one, though with slight variations, follows the same basic structure:
the core lands of the empire - Media, Elam, and Babylon - are listed first
then moving geographically to the lands around these core lands
not systematic in moving from east to west, for example
for example, in the Daiva inscription of Xerxes, he lists Assyria then Sattagydia - on basically opposite ends of the empire
the lack of logical order posits the King at the centre of this vast empire
the Old Persian 'satrap' only appears in Bisitun Inscription twice, and not in PFA
Lands exempted from traditional tribute
HDT 3.89-97
Nubians
on the Egyptian border
"Every second year these two nations brought - and still bring to-day about t
wo quarts of unrefined gold, two hundred logs of ebony, and twenty elephant tusks
."
Colchians
"he Colchians and the neighboring tribes between them and the Caucasus -
the limit of the empire in this direction
, everything to the northward being outside the range of Persian influence"
"In their case the contribution consisted (and still does) in the gift, every fourth year,
of a hundred boys and a hundred girls
"
Arabs
"the Arabs brought a thousand talents - about twenty-five and a half tons- of frankincense every year"
explanation:
lands on the borders of the empire were responsible for defence from foreign enemies
they could therefore enjoy a semi-autonomous status within the empire, as long as they acknowledged the authority of the king, and brought gifts
this shows the flexibility and adaptability of the Persian taxation system
Arrian 3.17
Arrian describes Alexander coming across the Uxians
the Achaemenid king had fostered a special gift-exchange relationship with the Uxians, rather than one of tribute
when the Achaemenid King made passage through their territory he would give them gifts
they likely give back horses
The Uxians did not have arable land through which to cultivate produce they could pay tribute in
High Officials of Persepolis
Parnaka
at the end of the 6th century Parnaka was the highest official at Persepolis, the chief economic administrator
he executes the orders of the king and members of the royal family, communicating their requests to the appropriate officials
he is one of the few officials, apart from the king himself, who authorises the travel rations of individuals and ration payments for the workers
the inscription of Parnaka's seal identifies him as 'Parnaka, son of Arsames' - meaning that Parnaka was the uncle of Darius
Arshama Archive
TADAE A6.4
transfer of a land grant to Psamšek
Arshama writes to Artavanta about a grant originally given by the king and Arshama to a man called Ankhohapi, who had served as an official in Arshama's domains
Ankhohapi's son, Psamsek, had now taken over his father's position and asks to receive the same grant
Arshama grants it
Demonstrates that Arshama, in his role, could confirm, continue, or transfer grants of land/property, which were rewards attached to service in his administration
TADAE A6.9 (halmi)
rations for Nakhthor's journey to Egypt
Arshama writes to a chain of officials in different places, ordering them to give daily rations to his steward Nakhthor
Nakhthor is travelling to Egypt
Arshama states that the provisions come from his own estates - he managed estates across egypt
Nakhthor cannot travel without this administrative approval, which Arshama has the power to grant
TADAE A6.7
release of Cilician slaves
Arshama intervening in the freedom of Cilician slaves - 13 in all
shows a multi-ethnic empire - Cilicians present in Egypt and subject to decisions made by a Persian satrap
Arshama has the power to intervene in disputes over persons, ownership, and enslavement
he controlled people as well as property
debate about when Arshama comes into power, but archive dates from later 5th century, and certainly after the revolt which ended in 454
the archive demonstrates the highly exploitative nature of persian rule at this point - John Ma says Persian rule like a vampiric system
but there is also some integration of Egyptians into imperial hierarchy
TADAE A6.10
Arshama asks Nakhthor to guard his goods properly
he mentions how when the Egyptians rebelled, the previous official guarded the goods and personnel in Egypt with force
he states that the officials in Lower Egypt are diligently guarding the estates of their lords, and even adding (resources) to the estates of their lords
Arshama harshly instructs his steward Nakhthor to do better
"You are to be diligent. Guard my personnel and goods forcefully, so that there shall not be any loss from my estate"
presents him as exploitative - 'vampire' of John Ma
this is what made Pierre Briant talk about a dominant ethno-class
but, see below
nemeiah 2.7-9 - beams for the gate of the temple fortress
was this true?