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Week 9 - Coggle Diagram

- - - - High mortality rate assoc with OUD is often linked to respiratory depression, a critical risk factor in overdose cases
      - Key risk factors of overdose include reduced tolerance following periods of abstinence & polydrug use, such as depressants
      - Concept of disability-adjusted life years combines years of life lost due to premature death & years lived with disability
      - Understanding risks is essential for developing effective prevention and intervention strategies
      - Leading cause of global burden of disease related to illict drug use, with sig implications for public health
    - - Rise of synthetic opioids has changed landscape of opioid-related deaths,with many users shifting to the more potent substances
      - Repots indicate that most common cause of deaths for male under 50 in US is now opioid overdose
      - Increase in overdose deaths in US has been very alarming, opioids accounting for a sig proportion of these fatalities
      - Increasing access to naloxone, an effective antidote for overdose & promoting it to at-risk populations, to combat opioid crisis
      - Annually, approx 150,000 people die from drug-related causes in UK, with Scotland reporting highest rates in Europe
  - - - Naloxone is a tool in reversing opioid overdoses, emphasising importance of education & accessibility for those at risk
      - Understanding dynamics of overdose situations is essential for effective harm reduction strategies
      - Can have delayed onset, where individuals may regain consciousness and then lose it again
      - Urgency of seeking professional help during an overdose situation cannot be overstated, timely intervention saves lives
      - Can occur rapidly, often referred to as catastrophic overdose, where individuals may still have the needle in their arm
      - Comprehensive solutions to opioid crisis must address both addictive nature of opioids & social factors contributing
    - - Community programs that distribute naloxone have shown effectiveness in reducing overdose deaths
      - Education on how to use naloxone is vital as many may not know how to administer it properly
      - Life-saving medication that can reverse effects of opioid overdose, making it crucial for individuals at risk and their families
      - Stigma surrounding drug use can hinder distribution & acceptance of naloxone
      - Policies that support naloxone access can sig impact public health outcomes in communities affected by opioid use
      - Case studies from regions with naloxone distribution programs demonstrate a decrease in overdose fatalities
  - - - Public health campaigns are focused on educating communities about importance of naloxone & how to administer it
      - Remains a sig need for comprehensive solutions to address broader opioid crisis, such as prevention, treatment & recovery
      - Concept of take-home naloxone aims to ensure that individuals at risk of overdose have immediate acces to this life-saving med
      - Ongoing research & policy are essential to enhance effectiveness of naloxone distribution & to reduce stigma
      - Critical tool in reversing opioid overdose, increasingly made available to the public
    - - Collab between healthcare providers, policymakers & community organisations is crucial for effective interventions
      - Long-term solutions should include improving access to treatment for OUD & integrating MH support in addiction services
      - Public health initiatives must focus on education, awareness & reducing stigma surrounding opioid use and addiction
      - Continuous monitoring & evaluation of public health strategies are necessary to adapt to evolving nature of opioid crisis
      - Addressing opioid crisis requires a multifaceted approach that includes prevention, treatment and harm reduction
  - - - Goal of these treatments is stabilisation and reduction of illicit opioid use, providing a safer alternative for those in recovery
      - Detoxification is a critical step in managing withdrawal symptoms, allowing the body to eliminate opioids safely
      - Methadone maintenance treatment and buprenoprhine-assisted treatment are common terms used in this fields
      - Naltrexone is another med using in OUD treatment, though it is less commonly prescribed compared to methadone & bup
      - Methadone & buprenorphine are 2 primary meds used in OUD treatment, both serving as replacement therapies
      - Understanding terminology & variations in treatment approaches is essential for effective communication in the field
    - - Engaging the community in discussions about treatment options can help demystify the use of injective heroin & potential benefits
      - Need for more info & education on this treatment option is evident, as many express uncertainty about implications
      - Debate surrounding legality and accessibility of pharmaceutical heroin for individuals with a history of dependence raise ethical & practical questions
      - Case studies from countries that have implement IH programs provide valuable insights into their effectiveness and challenges
      - Injectable heroin or diacetylmorphine treatment is a controversial approach to opioid addiction that has garnered attention recently
      - Ongoing research & policy discussions are necessary to evaluate role of IH in comprehensive addiction treatment strategies
  - - - Hepatitis C more prevalent than HIV among injecting drug users, with approx 80% of this population affected
      - Sharing of needles is primary transmission route for these viruses, underscoring need for harm reduction strategies
      - Historical data indicates rise in HIV in specific regions, like Glasgow, but recent efforts have led to decrease in new infections
      - Variations in prevalence rates across countries highlight global nature of epidemic and need for tailored interventions
      - Blooborne viruses are sig health concerns among injecting drug users
      - Advances in treatment for Hepatitis C have improved outcomes for affected individuals, similar to those in HIV treatment
    - - Chronic illnesses, respiratory diseases & cancers are additional health risks assoc with opioid use, contributing to elevated mortality rates
      - Understanding various routes of administration for opioids can inform harm reduction strategies and treatment approaches
      - Coexistence of Hepatitis C and other disorders complicates treatment for opioid users, making comprehensive care essential
      - Unintentional injuries & chronic illnesses are sig contributors to mortality of opioid users
      - Importance of integrating MH and addiction services is crucial for effective treatment outcomes
      - Policy approaches must consider the broader health implications of opioid use, including management of comorbid conditions
  - - - Also referred to as opioid maintenance therapy, opioid replacement therapy or opioid agonist therapy, highlighting role in stabilising individuals with OUDs
      - Primary goal is to reduce illict opioid use, improve health outcomes and enhance social functioning among individiuals with opioid dependence
      - Therapeutic approach aimed at treating opioid dependence by replacing illicit opioids with prescribed meds
    - - Buprenorphine - partial agonist that binds to opioid receptors but produces a milder effect, reducing risk of euphoria & potential misuse compared to full agonists like methadone
      - Both meds are administed in liquid form, with methadone typically being a green liquid & buprenorphine available in various forms
      - Methadone - long-acting synthetic opioid that acts as a full agonist at the mu-opioud receptor, providing withdrawal relief for up to 40hrs
  - - - Methadone can be misused recreationally, undermining intended therapeutic purpose & contributing to illict market dynamics
      - Risk of diversion, where prescribed meds are sold illegally, poses sig challenges for healthcare providers & policymakers
      - Some remain dependent on methadone for extended periods, laeding to concerns about long-term dependence & relapse potential
    - - Partial agonist nature may provide safer alternative for individuals who have struggled with full agonist treatments
      - In US, become primary treatment option for opioid dependence, reflecting a shift in clinical practice
      - Increasingly favoured in some regions due to lower potential for misuse & effectiveness in reducing cravings
  - - - Recognised as a chronic, recurring condition with high rates of relapse, necessitating ongoing treatment & support
      - Early onset of heroin use linked to more persistent use & greater risk of developing OUD over time
      - Key criteria includes loss of control over use, tolerance, withdrawal symtpoms and daily use patterns
      - Understanding criteria is crucial for effective intervention & treatment planning
      - Problematic pattern of opioud use leading to clinically sig impairment or distress, 2 out of 11 critiera met in 12 months
    - - Regions with high opioid use also report high level of OUD
      - Recent data suggests an increase in OUD cases in Canada, highlighting evolving nature of the crisis
      - Distribution of OUD prevalence globally shows sig variation, with North America exhibiting some of the highest rates
      - Prevalence of OUD critical factor in understanding broader implications of opioid use on public health systems
      - Addressing global burden of OUD requires comprehensive understanding of its prevalence and assoc risk factors
  - - - Clinicians utilise these guidelines to ensure safe and effective treatment for opioid dependence
      - Report emphasises importance of individualised treatment plans and regular assessments to optimise patient outcomes
      - Drug Misuse Independence Report, published every decade in UK, proides evidence-based recommendations for prescribing OST meds
    - - Studies show reduction in opioid-related risks, incl transmission of viruses & rates of acquisitive crime assoc w/ drug use
      - OST linked to improved social outcomes, incl better employment rates and enhacned quality of life for individuals in treatment
      - Research indicates that OST sig reduces mortality rates among individuals w/ opioid dependence highlighting life-saving potential
  - - - The prevalence of non-medical opioid use is a global concern, affecting regions beyond North America and Europe, including parts of Asia and Australia
      - Societal impacts of opioid use extend beyond individual health, affecting families & communities through increased heatlhcare costs & loss of productivity
      - In Europe, drug overdose remains a sig public health issue, with Scotland having the highest drug-related death rates in UK
      - Reports indicate that opioid-related deaths are a leading cause of mortality, necessitating urgent public health interventions
      - Despite low reported levels of opioid use, risk of harm is disproportionately high, particularly in terms of overdose deaths
    - - United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime reports that OUD accounts for nearly 12 million disablity-adjusted life years worldwide
      - Meta-analysis of 58 cohort studies shows that opioid users are nearly 15x more likely to die than those w/o disorder
      - Correlation between high opioid use and high rates of OUD is evident in global data
      - Global death rate from drug-related causes continues to rise, with 150,000 deaths annually
      - Updated statistics revela a concerning trend in OUD prevalence, particularly in North America and Central Asia
  - - - Aim to maximise public health options available to individuals struggling with addiction
      - Needle exchange programs, supervised injection facilities and drug testing services
      - Pragmatic, avodiing moral judgements and focuses on risk reduction rahter than complete abstinence
      - Effectiveness is often debated, particuarly regarding its percevied impact on addiction rates
      - Encompasses interventions & policies aimed at reducing the neg health, social & economic impact w/o necessarily reducing use
      - Crucial for understanding harm reduction doesn't equate to treatment
    - - Take-home naloxone program aims to equip individuals with means to respond to overdose effectively
      - Scotland has national naloxone program, sig increasing access and training for overdose response
      - Opioid antagonist to reverse opioid overdoses, available in various forms such as injectable and intranasal
      - Goal is for 90% of witnesses to an overdose to be trained in naloxone use, with a similar percentage carrying naloxone
      - Acts quickly to displace opioids from receptors, making it a critical tool in emergency overdose situations
      - Public perception and understanding of naloxone;s role in overdose prevention are eseential for its successful implementation
  - - - Rec use of methadone occurs, highlghting complexities of its role in treatment and illict drug use
      - Often seen as a harm reduction strategy, providing a safer alternative to street heroin
      - While primarily use for opioid addiction treatment, also has pain-relieving properties, though its not its main indication
      - Ongoing illicit drug use indicates a need for comprehsnive treatment options beyond methadone
      - Full agonist, activates opioid receptors in the brain, leading to euphoric effects similar to other opioids
      - Efficacy in reducing street heroin use has been documented but its essential to consider broader context of addiction treatment
    - - RCT demonstrated sig reductions in street heroin use among patients treated with dimoprhine compared to methadone
      - DEspite higher cost, shows evidence of efficacy, prompting discussion about its reintroduction
      - Was primary treatment for heroin addiction before methadone
      - Glasgow uses dimoprhine clinics, being reintroduced
      - Used in 7 countries and is reserved for severe, treatment-refractory cases, accounting fo 5-10% of opioid addiction treatments
      - Debate include ethical considerations about its use and the potential message it sends about addiction
  - - - In UK, estimates up to 2% of population uses opioids, likely an underestimate due to underreporting & sampling bias
      - High-risk groups, such as SUDs, are often underrepresented in surveys, laeding to skewed data
      - Significant global public health issue, with varying prevalence across different regions
      - Consequences extend beyong individual haelth, impacting families and communities, necessitating comprehensive public health strategies
    - - Harm reduction strategies aim to minimise neg consequences of opioid use, such as overdose prevention programs & safe injection sites
      - Education & awareness campaigns are crucial in addressing stigma and promoting safe practices among users
      - Effective treatment includes pharmacological interventions (methadone, buprenorphine) & behavioural therapies
      - Collaboration between healthcare providers, policymakers & community organisations is essential for effective intervention
  - - - Titration involves adjusting dose to alleviate withdrawal effectively, ensuring that patients receive optimal amount for their treatment
      - Individual responses to methadone can vary sig, necessitating caregul monitoring and adjustmens by healthcare providers
      - Typical dosing for methadone from 60 to 120mg per day, based on individual needs & responses, determined through titration
    - - Buprenorphine's partial agonist effet means it activates opioid receptors but to a lesser extent, can help mitigate withdrawa,
      - Pharmaoclogical profile of buprenorphine may deter individuals from using other opioisd, as it can block euphoric effects of full agonists
      - Methadone's long acting properties help prevent withdrawal & cravings, making it effective for individuals transitioning
  - - - Binding to these receptors lead to pain relief, euphoria and CNS depression
      - Opioid agonists inhibit neurotransmitter release & increase dopamine levels in the brain's reward system
      - Primarily act on 3 types of receptors; mu, delta & kappa, located in the brain and peripheral nervous system
      - Physiological effects vary based on type of opioid & specific receptor activated, influencing both therapeutic & harmful outcomes
    - - Opioids have sig effects on various body systems
      - CNS - causes sedation and euphoria but also respiratory depression, which can lead to overdose
      - Gastrointestinal Tract - slows down guit motility, leading to constipation, a common side effect
      - Chronic use leads to tolerance, where higher doses are needed to achieve the same effects due to receptor downregulation & desensitisation
      - Withdrawal symptoms include nausea, vomitting, diarrhea & psych distress indicating physical dependence
    - - Semi-synthetic e.g. heroin which is chemically modified from morphine
      - Synthetic e.g. fentanyl created entirely in labs
      - Naturally occuring e.g. morphine, derived from opium poppy
      - Opioid family tree ilustrates relationships and differences among these categories
      - Can be classified into 3 categories
      - Opioid is derived from Morpheus reflecting sedative effects
      - Natural or synthetic substances that stimulate opioid receptors, producting effects similar to opium
- - - - Players who choose their own outcomes feel a greater sense of control, which influences their perception of winning probabilities
      - Studies show that ppts felt more likely to win when they selected the reel themsleves compared to when computers did
    - - Desire to continue playing is sig higher when players they have control over the game, especially after NM
      - When control is diminished, the motivation to continue playing decreases, even after NM
  - - - Can reinforce behaviour of playing, as players associate excitement with winning, even when they are losing money
      - Post-reinforcement pause after a win is also observed after losses disguised as wins
      - Players exhibit physiological arousal similar to that experienced during actual wins when encountering losses disguised as wins
    - - Jensen et al indicates that players report higher win counts than actually occurred, distorting their perception of success
      - Distortion can lead to continued gambling, as players believe they are more successful than they truly are
      - Players often misremember the number of wins during a gambling season, especially when losses disguised as wins are present
    - - Create a psych effect where players feel they are winning, despite losing money overall
      - Excitement generated by wins can lead to continued play
      - Occur when players win a small amount that doesn't cover their total stake, yet the machine presents it as a win
    - - Players may develop an overestimation of their control over outcomes due to NM and losses disguised as wins
      - Understanding psych effects is crucial for addressing gambling problems and developing interventions
      - Structural characteristics of EGMs contribute to prolonged play and gambling addiction
  - - - Electrothermal activity - studies show that skin conductance response increases during near misses
      - Motivation to continue - players are more likely to want to continue to play after a NM compared to FM
    - - In experiemnts, ppts rated their desire to continue playing higher after NM, despite both outcomes resultings in no winnings
      - Ppts reported greater enjoyment of the game after NM, even though they were less pleased than after full misses
    - - Full miss - where the players doesn't win and is more than one slot away from a win
      - Near miss - where the player doesn't win but is very close to winning, often perceived as more favourable than a full miss
  - - - Statistically, NM are more frequent than wins, which can distort players' perceptions of winning chances
      - Visual representation of reels can mislead players
      - Occur when reels stop just short of a winning combination, creating a false sense of hope for players
    - - Only 6% of spins result in a gold 7, while 2.3 of the time, the reel stops on gaps not symbols
      - Discrepacny creates a cog bias, leading players to overestimate their chances of winning
      - Physical appearance of reels suggests higher likelihood of winning symbols than is statistically accurate
    - - Selects a number that corresponds to a position on the virtual reel, which is not visible to the player
      - Players often misinterpret the spinning reels as determining the outcome, leading to misconceptions about probabilities
      - Utilise random number generators to detmrmine outcomes, independent of physical reels
    - - Players may bet on numerous lines simultaneously, leading to a situation where they can win on some lines but lose overall due to total stake
      - Can create a misleading perception of wnning, as players may focus on individual wins rather than overall losses
      - Modern machines often feature multiple paylines, increasing complexity of betting and winning
  - - - Measured ppts' responses to NM vs FM, revealing sig difference in willingness to continue playing based on perceived proximity
      - Skin condutance was recorded to assess emtoional reactions
      - In one study, ppts interacted with a 2 reel SM, where they could either select outcome or have it determined by computer
      - Contribute to a deeper understanding of cog and emotional factors that influence gambling decisions
      - Researchers have developed these to study player behaviour & effects of near misses in a controlled environment
      - Helps isolate specific variables, making it easier to analyse the impact of game features on player behaviour
    - - Recognising role of NM and sensory features, stakeholders can better address challenges of gambling addiction
      - Need for further research into the cog biases that influence gambling behaviour and the design of gaming machines
      - Insights can inform development of responsible gambling practices & policies aimed at reducing gambling-related harm
      - Undesrtanding can lead to more effective interventions and support for individuals struggling w/ gambling addiction
      - Highlights importance of understanding psych mechanisms behind gambling, particularly in relation to EGMs
      - Essential for creating a safer gambling environment and promoted informed DM among players
  - - - Modern slot machines differ sig from trad machines, particularly in how they present outcomes and NM
      - Design can enhance illusion of control and increase frequency of NM
    - - Visual effects of tumbling reels and NM can create a misleading sense of winning potential, encouraging continued play
      - Players may become desensitised to losses due to frequent presentation of NM, reinforcing gambling behaviour
  - - - Psychological impact can create a cycle of hope, where players believe they are close to winning, thus increasing persistence
      - Studies found that players exposed to near misses are more liekly to play longer than those who experinece only full misses
      - Can sig influence gambling behaviour, making players more likely to continue playing even after a loss
      - Crucial in udnerstanding why players may not perceive their losses as failures, but rather as opportuntiies for future success
      - Occurs when a player comes close to winning, such as having two matching symbols
      - Griffith's research highlights that gamblers may view their experiences as a series of nera wins
    - - Ppts played a slot machine w/ a series of trials & those who experienced near misses continued playing for av. 20 spins more
      - Kassinove & Schare found that players exposed to higher frequency of near misses played for sig longer periods
      - Players who experience near mises tend to play longer than those who do not, w. sig differences in play duration
      - Near missed can create a psych reward system, where anticipation of winning drives continued engagement
      - Implications are critical for understanding gambling addiction & design of EGM
      - Understanding psych behind near misses can inform responsible gambling initiatives and help mitigate the risks assoc w/ rec gambling
  - - - In skill-basde games, NM can provide useful feedback about performance
      - In chance-based games, NM do not provide informative feedback and can lead to misconceptions about skill
    - - Gamblers often misinterpret NM as indicators of skill, leading to persistent play despite the randomness of the game
      - Understanding nature of the game is crucial for recognising relevance of NM
  - - - Players often use credit cards or bill feeders, which facilitate ongoing play by allowing them to continue without cashing out
      - Encourages players to stop playing only when they run out of credits, rather than when they decide to cash out
      - Typically have a high payout rate, averaging around 95%, creates a perception of winning and encourages players to keep playing
      - Rapid sequence and ability to play multiple rounds in a short time contributes to addictive nature
      - Electronic gaming machines are designed to promote continuous play, allowing plays to quickly transition from one to the next
      - Combination of quick play and high payout rates creates a cycle of hope and anticipation, reinforcing desire to continue gambling
    - - Presence of multiple machines in a casino ampligies sounds of winning, creating a false sense of success among players
      - Often includes features that make it appear as though players are almost winning, can lead to cog bias known as near miss effect
      - Winning sounds are designe to be loud and attention-grabbing, leading players to overestimate frequency of wins
      - May feel a sense of urgency due to interactive features, such as pressing buttons to stop reels, giving them false sense of control
      - Utilise loud sounds & visual effects to create an engaging atmosphere, which distort players' perceptions of winning
      - Contribute to distorted understanding of the game's mechanics, leading to increased playtime and expenditure
- - - - Gamblers may derive pleasure from thrill of the gamble itself, rather than jsut the outcome of winning or losing
      - Shifts focus from financial gain to the emotional experience associated with gambling
      - One cog explanation suggests that excitement and uncertainty of gambling provide additional utility beyond financial rewards
    - - These distortions can contribute to problem gambling, where individuals continue to gamble at sig personal cost
      - Understanding these cog biases is essential for addressing gambling addiction & developing effective interventions
      - May overestimated their chances of winning due to cog distortions, leading to persistent gambling behaviour despite neg outcomes
  - - - Anderson & Brown (1980s) demonstrated that both students and regular gamblers exhibited heightened arousal while playing blackjack
      - This response supports the notion that gambling is not only a financial activity but also an emotionally charged experience
      - Research indicates that gambling can lead to physiological arousal, as measured by heart rate during gambling activities
    - - Such representations may influence public perception & participation in gambling activities, reinforcing its appeal as a recreational pursuit
      - The allure of gambling in media contrasts with the reality of its risks and potential for addiction
      - Often glamorised in popular culture, where it is assoc with sophistication and excitement
  - - - Posits that individuals tend to overweight small probabilities, leading to irrational choices in gambling contexts
      - Overweighting of small probabilities can explain why people buy lottery tickets or place bets despite low chances of winning
      - Kahneman and Tversky, explains how people make decisions under risk
    - - Explains behaviours such as purchasing insurance, where the perceived value outweighs the actual probability of winning
      - It does not clarify why gambling is often associated with leisure and entertainment, unlike other financial decisions
      - Provides insight into why certain forms of gambling are attractive, as individuals perceive a greater value in potential small wins
  - - - In a controlled lab, heart rates increased, but increase was even more pronounced in real casinos, with an avergae increase of 22 beats per minute
      - Increase in heart rate correlates with level of uncertainty in gambling outcomes, suggesting that the thrill of potential wins drives physiological responses
      - Anderson & Brown (1980s) showed sig heart rate increases in both student ppts & regular gamblers during blackjack games
      - Sensation-seeking individuals exhibited largest heart rate increases, indicating a link between personality & gambling excitement
      - Heart rate increases during gambling activities, indicating heightened arousal and excitement
    - - Suggests that the stakes involved play a crucial role in the level of arousal experienced during gambling
      - Findings support the idea that gambling is not purely irrational; individuals may derive excitement & utiltiy from the experience, even when losing money
      - Ladouceur demonstrated that heart rates sig increase when players win money compared to when they win credits
      - Relationship between arousal and gambling behaviour raises questions about the motivations behind continued gambling despite losses
  - - - In gambling, unpredictability of rewards mirrors the variable ratio schedule, encouraging repeated behaviour
      - Resistance to extinction in behaviour suggests that gamblers may continue to play even after experiencing sig losses
      - Skinner identified that continous reinforcement leads to the lowest response rates, while variable ratio schedules yield the highest
    - - While Skinner's model explains some aspects of gambling, it doesn't fully account for differences in gambling contexts, such as sports betting vs slot machines
      - Behavioural approach lacks a comprehensive understanding of cog processes involved in gambling decisions
  - - - Excitement derived from gambling may be a sig factor in why individuals continue to gamble, even when they are losing money
      - Understanding challenges the notion that gambling is purely a rational decision
      - Physiological response indicataes that the experience is thrilling beyond just financial gain
    - - Investigating impact of diff types of gamvling on cog biases could provide deeper insights
      - Understanding how to mitigate cog distortions may help in developing interventions for problem gamblers
      - Further research needed to explore relationship between cog distortions and gambling behav, particularly in high-arousal situations
  - - - Despite knowledge that house always win, gambling remains popular, indicating a complex psychological appeal
      - 'The house always wins' reflect inherent disadvantage for gamblers, yet it does not deter participation
      - Widely accepted recreational activity, with many individuals in the UK participating at least once a year
    - - Skinner's experiments with rats demonstrated that variable reinforcement schedules lead to higher rates of response
      - Concept of reinforcement schedules is crucial in understanding why gamblers continue to engage in gambling despite losses
      - Early psych theories, particularly by Skinner, laid the groundwork for understanding gambling behaviour
  - - - Gamblers often believe that their next attempt will be successful, despite previous losses, which is a common cog bias
      - Publications provide extensive data on past performances, leading gamblers to believe they can predict future outcomes based on patterns
      - Refer to erroneous beliefs that gamblers hold about their chances of winning, which can lead to poor DM
      - This belief in pattern recognition can create a false sense of control over the gambling process, reinforcing desire to continue gambling
    - - Pioneered by Ladouceur, involves gamblers verbalising their thoughst while playing, providing insights into cog processes
      - Analysis of these verbalisations reveal that many express misconceptions about the mechanics of the games they play
      - Statements like 'the machine is hot' reflect a misundertanding of probability, as outcomes are independent of previous results
      - Frequency of erroneous thoughts increases with arousal, suggesting that heightened emotional states can exacerbate cog distortions
- - - - Influencing factors include presnece of money, social inequality and social complexity
      - Enjoyment derived from gambling highlights its role in fostering competition and play, which can contribute to social group development and maturation
      - Has been assoc with traditional regions and social practices, suggesting a geographical correlation between cultural beliefs and gambling prevalence
    - - Critique of psych research being biased towards WEIRD populations raises concerns about generalisability
      - Most modern gambling research is concentrated in UK, US and Canada, reflecting Western-centric perspective
  - - - Transition from non-gambling games to gamling is seen as a small step in human behav, as competition and risk-taking are inherent to human nature
      - Ubiquity of gambling in historical contexts suggests a deep-rooted cultural acceptance of risk-taking behaviors
      - Considered normal in many societies today, with its prevakence and popularity evident in various forms
    - - Theories suggest that societies with benevolent gods may be more inclined to accept gambling, while those with punitive deities may discourage it due to fear of consequences
      - Factors such as presence of money, social inequality & complexity of society also play sig roles in development of gambling behaviours
      - Different cultures exhibit varying levels of gambling prevalence, influenced by beliefs about deities & societal norms
  - - - Online gambling has seen a consistent upward trend since 2016, accelerated by lockdown
      - Specific gambling forms, such as scratch cards, have declined, while online fruit and slot machines have increased in popularity
      - Overall gambling participation has remained stable between 40-50%, with notable drops during COVID, due to lockdown
    - - Prevalence of problem gambling in UK is estimated at 0.3-0.8%, indicating that while most don;t have issues, a small percentage do face serious problems
      - Problem Gambling Severity Index is used to measure severity of gambling problems, showing slight decrease since 2016
      - Gambling industry relies on a minority of gamblers for revenue, raising ethical concerns about the relationship between gambling businesses and individuals with gambling problems
  - - - Greek myths depict gods using dice-like objects, indicating that gambling was part of their cultural narratives
      - In ancient China, Keno was played over 2000 years ago, showcasing early forms of lottery and gamblign regulated by local authorities
      - Archaelogical evidence shows that gambling has existed for thousands of years, w/ knucklebones found in Rome & Greece
    - - Western style of lottery beganin 15th century, indicating a long history of gambling practices
      - Binde (2005) found that gamvling wasn't universal in 1500AD, with evidence of gambling in some cultures but not in others, such as certain regions in Africa & among Native Americans
      - Some societies have historically banned gambling due to cultural or religious beliefs, particularly in Islamic regions
  - - - Commission operates independently from gambling industry, funded by the government, to ensure unbiased regulation
      - The Act is expected to undergo updates to address emerging trends and concerns in gambling practices
      - Gambling Commission was established in 2005 following UK Gambling Act, which regulates gambling activities in GB
    - - Public sentiment indicates that 80% of people believe there are excessive gambling opportunities available
      - Data from NHS Digital shows that majority of gamblers participate infrequently, with a sig portion gambling less than once a month
      - As of 2023, 44% of UK population engages in some form of gambling, a figure that has remained stable over recent years
  - - - Broad and often debated, with many scenarios that may or may not be classified as gambling based on individual definitions
      - Hedging or attempting to prevent a loss, is often not considered gambling, despite being financially equivalent to trad gambling scenarios
      - Placing somehting of value at risk in hopes of gaining something of greater value (Potenza)
      - Legal definitions typically require a stake, an element of chance and an uncertain prospect of a prize, often monetary in nature
    - - Presence of a stake and element of chance are essential components in defining gambling legally
      - Different jurisdictions may have varying laws regarding gamling, reflecting cultural attitudes and historical contexts
      - Legal definitions of gambling are crucial for regulation & taxation, influencing whether certain behaviours are premitted or banned
- - - - Gamblers often believe that patterns in random events can predict future outcomes, leading to poor DM
      - The belief that streaks of wins or losses must balance out can lead to increased gambling behaviour, despite losses
    - - Understanding these cog biases is crucial for developing interventions to help individuals recognise and mitigate irrational gambling behaviours
      - Education on probability and randomness can help reduce the impact of the gambler's fallacy and hot hand belief
  - - - Suggests that the belief in personal agency can influence DM in gambling contexts
      - Distinction between chance and algorithm impacts how gamblers perceive their ability to influence outcomes
      - People exhibit more confidence when they believe they can predict outcomes in games of chance compared to when they think outcomes are determined by complex algorithms
    - - A streak fo 26 consecutive black outcomes led many gamblers to bet on red, believing it was due to occur
      - Research indicates that gamblers often misinterpret sequences of wins and losses, leading to irrational betting behaviour
      - Belief that past events affect the probabilities of future events in independent trials, such as roulette spins
  - - - People tend to overestimate the likelihood of alternations in random sequences, leading to misconceptions about success streaks
      - Observers may beliefe that sucessful shots in basketball are indicative of a player's skill rather than random chance
      - Both gambler's fallacy and hot hand belief stem from cog biases regarding randomness and probability
    - - Mirrors the hot hand belief, where past successes lead to infalte confidence in future performance
      - Confidence was lower when ppts were informed of a complex algorithm determining outcomes, suggestng that percevied randomness affects belief in skill
      - Aton demonstrated that ppts' confidence in predicting outcomes increased after a series of correct precitions, even when told the game was purely chance-based
    - - Opposite of gambler's fallacy, where individuals believe that a player who has made several successful shots is more likely to succeed again
      - Particularly common in sports, where players are perceived to have hot hands after a series of successful attempts
  - - - One group believes that after a series of losses, they are due for a win, while another group feels that winning streaks justify higher bets
      - These strategies reflect cog biases & misconceptions about probability
      - Gamblers exhibit 2 distinct betting strategies based on their recent outcomes; increasing bets after losses or after wins
    - - Studies show that players tend to bet more when they are personally involved in the outcome, such as rolling dice
      - Perception of personal agency can skew gamblers' understanding of the randomness of games
      - Gamblers often seek a sense of control over their environment, which can lead to irrational betting behaviours
  - - - After 5 consecutive blacks, the probability of choosing black drops to about 33%
      - Demonstrates a clear deviation from rational DM based on statistical independence
      - Research shows that after a run of black outcomes, the likelihood of choosing black decreases significantly
    - - Misconception that streaks in random events can influence future outcomes is prevalent among gamblers
      - Statistical training often fails to mitigate this fallacy, as many still struggle to grasp the concept of independent events
      - In casinos, gambler's fallacy can lead to sig financial losses as players increase their bets based on perceived patterns
    - - Classic example is roulette, where outcomes are either red or black, and each spin is independent of the previous ones
      - Despite independence of spins, gamblers may believe that after a series of blacks, a red is 'due' to occur next
      - Refers to the erroneous belief that past independent events affect the probabiltiies of future independent events
  - - - Difference highlights impact of perceived control on betting behaviour, despite odds remaining constant
      - Underscores psychological factors influencing gambling decisions
      - Davis (2000) found that players bet apprxo $5 per throw whne rolling the dice themselves, compared to $3 when others rolled
    - - Ppts were less willing to sell their chosen tickets, indicating a cog bias towards personal involvement
      - Illustrates how personal agency can distort perceptions of value and probability
      - Demonstrated that individuals value their self-selected lottery tickets more than randomyl assigned ones, even with equal probabilities