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Breathlessness, National Institute for Health and Care Excellence (2022).…

- - - - Give oxygen if SpO₂ is low
      - Target saturation depends on condition:
        
        Most patients: 94–98%
        
        Risk of CO₂ retention (e.g., Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease): 88–92%
      - Positioning
        
        Sit patient upright
        
        Leaning forward (tripod position) can ease breathing
        
        Relieve anxiety
        
        Calm environment
        
        Reassurance
        
        Slow breathing techniques (especially if anxiety-related)
        
        Acute treatments (depending on cause)
        
        Bronchodilators (e.g., for asthma/COPD)
        
        Antibiotics (if infection suspected)
        
        Diuretics (heart faiure)
        
        Anticoagulation (if pulmonary embolism)
        
        Nebulisers if severe airway obstruction
        
        Treat the underlying cause
        
        Respiratory causes
        
        Asthma → inhalers (beta-agonists, steroids)
        
        COPD → bronchodilators, steroids, smoking cessation
        
        Pneumonia → antibiotics
        
        Pulmonary embolism → anticoagulants
        
        Pneumothorax → oxygen ± chest drain
        
        Cardiac causes
        
        Heart failure → diuretics, ACE inhibitors, beta-blockers
        
        Arrhythmia → rate/rhythm control
        
        Myocardial infarction → emergency cardiac treatment
        
        Other causes
        
        Anaemia → iron/B12/folate replacement or transfusion
        
        Anxiety → breathing control, psychological therapy
        
        Metabolic acidosis → treat underlying metabolic disorder
        
        Obesity → weight management, exercise therapy
        
        Chronic / long-term management
        
        Lifestyle measures
        
        4 more items...