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Ch 6 - Settlement dynamics, Notes on ch6 from Mr Doughty - Coggle Diagram
Ch 6 - Settlement dynamics
6.1 - Changes in rural settlements
Changes rural environments
UK reflects many of the changes occurring in rural areas in other HICs
Economy of rural areas is no longer dominated by farming as agricultural jobs been lost, due to tech and the service sector
significant new users of rural space e.g. recreation, tourism
rural landscape has evolved with complex multi-use resource and as this has happened the rural population has changed character
ecomomic changes have fuelled social change in the countryside with in migration of people. post - war period government attempted to contain expansion into the countryside by creating green belts and by allocation of housing to urban areas
Changing agriculture
Countryside has been affected by major structural changes in agricultural production
73% is agriculatural land in the UK total land
2% total workforce is now employed in agriculture UK
size of farms steadily increased
resulted in significant loss hedgerows, which provide important ecological networks
agricultural wages significantly below national wage
Counter-urbanisations and rural landscape
Counter-urbanisation has replaced urbanisation as dominant force shaping settlement patterns, resulted in 'rural population turnround'
Green belt restrictions limited impact of counter-urbanisation in many areas adjacent to cities, greatest impact of it has been just beyond green belts where commuting is clearly viable, the rural settlements have grown substantially and been altered in character.
rural depopulation has diminished, now confined to the most isolated areas of country but exceptions can be found in other areas where economic condition are bad.
The issue of rural services
Rural services have been in decline for number of year, impacting heavily on the quality of life of many people, 2008 report revealed that nearly half of communities have seen the loss of key local services in previous 4 years
Action with Communities in Rural England (ACRE) highlights following:
effect of market forces, arrival of supermarkets in local areas making local services no longer competitive
changing pattern of rural population, more mobile residents with different shopping and consumer patterns becoming a greater part of rural pattern of life
change in expectations of rural residents themselves, who are no longer prepared to make do with relatively poor and expensive services, means of getting better services outside
Key villages - key settlements that central to rural setllement policy in many parts UK, concept relates to central place theory and assumes that focusing services, facilities and employment in one selected settlement will satisfy the essential needs of surrounding villages. Argument is that falling demand, dispersed services would decline rapidly in vulnerable areas, only way to maintain reasonable level of service provision by focusing on those locations with greatest accessibility and best combination of other advantages.
Rural transport problem
Considerable increase in car ownership, devastating impact on public transport, didn't much impact rural car owners but increase affect on isolation of poor, elderly and young
lack of public transport intense pressure on low-income households - large additional expense that could do with out, increase in fuel has sorted this issue
continuing concern Britians remaining rural railway lines under threat in repeat of the 'Beeching cuts' of 1960s
Rural housing problem
lack of affordable housing in village communities resulted large number of young having to move to market towns or larger urban centres.
12% rural housing is subsidised, compared with 25% in urban areas, issue of second homes has become increasingly contentious
Case study - Isle of Purbeck
Location/Development
Forms the Southerneastern part of Purbeck District in Dorset, classed as a remote rural district, rural settlement concentrated in clustered villages with Corfe Castle being the largest, villages are set in network of isolated farms/houses there is not many hamlets, lower order urban services are provided by towns of Swanage and Wareham, with higher order urban services being found in Bournemouth-Poole conurbation.
Population Change
Population Pubeck District as a whole has risen consistently over the past 40yrs. It is considerably older than the country aswell mainly because of popularity for retirement area. However, out migration of young adults in search wider economic opportunities and lower-cost accommodation is factor.
Rural housing problem
House prices in areas have risen at rate above national average, been due to competition from number of different groups people. High level of competition for limited number of properties pushed the cost of housing to a level well beyond the reach of most local people. Problem is compounded by the fact that local employment opportunities are limited and wages are low
Rural service decline
Dorset Rural Facilities Survey 2002 found a continuing decline in rural services, makes people more reliant on transport, both public or private, gain access to basic services. Main casual factors have been increasing competition from urban supermarkets and increasing personal mobility of most of rural population
Public transport
Public motor transport is limited, there is extra minibuses coverage through volunteer schemes, but this is limited.
Rural deprivation
In terms of housing is particularly acute in high-priced housing countries such as Dorset, lack of opportunity in health and social services, education and retail facilities also affects disadvantaged people, especially isolated. Mobility deprivation is also evident as public transport is very limited. Deprivation concentrated in the long-established population. Those have migrated area generally significantly higher income.
Contemporary issue in rural settlements in LICs
Process affecting rural settlements in dvelopoing courntries has been rural-urban migration provided safety by -
reducing rural population growth and pressure of supplies
helping to limit unemployment and underemployment
providing valuable source of income through the remittances of migrants
However, rural communities scale rural-urban migration has been so great that resulted in -
rural depopulation and aging population
closure of services, both public and private, as population declines
insufficent labour to maintain agricultural production at its former levels
Southern African countries such Botswana devastating impacts of AIDS resulted in rural depopulation in many areas, rural poverty accounts 60% poverty worldwide, 90% in some developing countries, most can access to all facilities however in Urban poverty created by rural poor's efforts to get out of poverty by moving cities
1/3 population Mongolia live as nomadic herders on sparsely populated grasslands, most live in very isolated locations. Recent years droughts and unusually cold, snowy winters have declimated livestock, destroying livelihoods of tones. Many have moved to Ulaanbaatar the capital, where live in impoverished conditions, mainly on periphery of city
6.2 - Urban trends and issues of urbanisation
urban trends
the cycle of urbanisation
Urban development follows a sequence known as the cycle of urbanisation.
The key processes are:
Suburbanisation – movement from city centres to suburbs.
Counterurbanisation – migration from cities to rural areas.
Reurbanisation – movement back into city centres.
In Britain, suburbanisation dominated until the 1960s.
Reurbanisation, beginning in the 1990s, is the most recent stage in some large cities.
suburbanisation
In Britain, suburbanisation was mainly caused by the construction of suburban railway lines.
Each railway expansion triggered rapid house building around stations.
At first, suburbanisation was almost entirely a middle‑class phenomenon.
After the First World War, the growth of public housing led to the development of working‑class suburbs.
Reasons for rapid suburban growth:
Government support for house building
Local authorities providing:
piped water
sewerage systems
gas and electricity
Expansion of building societies (made mortgages more accessible)
Low interest rates
Development of public transport routes
Improvements to the road network
current pattens
The most urbanised regions today are North America, Europe and Oceania.
By 2025, around half of Asia and Africa’s population is expected to live in urban areas.
About 80% of urban dwellers in MICs and LICs live there due to counterurbanisation from HICs.
In HICs, urbanisation peaked in the 1970s and later declined due to counterurbanisation.
Africa and Asia have the fastest urban growth rates.
counterurbanisation
Counterurbanisation refers to urban deconcentration, where people move from larger urban areas to smaller towns and rural areas.
It is the dominant population movement in most developed cities in HICs today.
Each level of the settlement hierarchy:
gains people from larger urban areas above it
loses people to smaller settlements below it
However, overall (net) figures hide the fact that some people still move in the opposite direction, back into cities.
the post -1945 'urban explosion' in the developing world
After 1945, rapid urban growth shifted to MICs and LICs.
Urban growth often outpaced economic development, leading to overcrowded cities.
Cities in MICs and LICs grew faster than those in HICs.
The term ‘urban explosion’ describes this rapid, large‑scale urban growth.
reurbanisation
In recent years, British cities have partly reversed earlier population decline.
Central government funding has been an important factor, e.g. large subsidies invested in London’s Docklands.
New urban design has also helped make city centres more attractive places to live.
London stopped losing population in the mid‑1980s and has grown since due to:
Net international immigration
Natural increase
A key feature of reurbanisation is the rejuvenation of inner London:
Young adults are now the dominant population group
In the 1960s, inner London had a more mature population structure
Inner London is now seen as a vibrant and attractive destination for young migrants from the UK and abroad
the first cities and the urban industry
The term urban revolution was used by Gordon Childe to describe major changes in society marked by the emergence of the first cities around 5,500 years ago.
The second urban revolution occurred during the late 18th century with the Industrial Revolution in Britain.
Urbanisation accelerated as factories expanded and industrialisation spread to other countries.
By 1950, over half the population in some regions lived in towns and cities.
Most urbanisation occurred in HICs, where the majority of people became urban dwellers.
issues of urbanisation
renewal and redevelopment
Urban redevelopment:
Complete clearance of existing buildings and infrastructure
New buildings constructed from scratch
Urban renewal:
Keeps the best existing buildings
Adapts buildings for new uses
Often protected by planning regulations
After World War II, many cities used large-scale redevelopment due to extensive damage.
From the 1970s, urban renewal became more popular as planners aimed to:
Preserve useful buildings
Improve sustainability and community value
More recently, urban regeneration has become important:
Combines redevelopment and renewal
Urban regeneration in the UK
Urban Development Corporations (UDCs) were set up in the 1980s–1990s to tackle urban blight.
Example:
London Docklands Development Corporation (1981)
One of Europe’s largest urban regeneration projects
Included Canary Wharf
Extended London’s CBD eastwards
Another example:
Lower Lea Valley regeneration for the 2012 Olympic Games
Aimed to bring long-term economic prosperity
global (world) cities
the growth of global cities has been due to
Demographic trends
High rates of natural increase and in-migration
Occur at different times in HICs, MICs and LICs
Large population clusters provide labour and consumer markets
Economic development
Emergence of major manufacturing and service centres
Growth within national and continental economic spaces
Development of key transport nodes in the global trading system
Cultural / social status
Cultural facilities increase international attraction
Boost tourism, foreign direct investment (FDI) and migration
Political importance
Many global cities are capital cities
Benefit from high levels of investment in infrastructure
competition for land
All cities experience competition for land, which varies by location.
Competition is shown through:
Land prices
Rent levels
Planning controls such as land-use zoning and restrictions can limit the free market.
Some urban areas suffer from long-term dereliction:
Land is unattractive for development
Significant investment is needed to reuse it
6.3 - The changing structure of urban settlements.
The
concentric zone model
based off = a uniform land surface, free competition for space, universal access to a single-centred city, continuing in-migration to the city.
E.W.Burgess
said that the city would tend to form a series of concentric zones with the physical expansion of the city occurring by the process of invasion and succession, with each zone expanding at expense of the one beyond.
Concentric zone
= region of an urban area, circular in shape, surrounding the central business district (CBD) and possibly other regions of a similar shape, that has common land use.
Zone in transition
= AKA twilight zone. It's the area just beyond the CBD, which is characterised by a mixture of residential, industrial and commercial land use. Poor quality and cheap cost of accommodation.
Surrounding the CBD was the '
zone in transition'
where older private houses were being subdivided into flats.
Bid-rent theory
= refers to the decreasing accessibility as you move out from the centre of an urban area, with declining land values allowing an ordering of land uses related to rent affordability.
The Sector Model
= Hoyt placed the business district in a central location for the same reason - maximum accessibility. High-income housing usually developed where there are social attractions. Major transport routes
Multiple-nuclei model
= Harris and Ullman argued that the pattern of urban land use doesn't develop around a single centre but around a number of discrete nuclei.
Models of cities in LICs and MICs
= Central areas that that have changed rapidly from the colonial period to now show the most of the characteristic of modern Western CBDs, development of commercial spine extending outwards from the CBD, tendency for industries with their need for urban services such as power and water near the central area, a 'zone of maturity' with full range of services, zone of squatter settlements.
Urban density gradient
= rate at which population density and/or the intensity of land use falls off with increasing distance from the centre of the city.
Factors affecting location of urban activities.
Manufacturing industry
= attracted to rural areas
Retailing
= location and characteristics of retailing has changed in most cities. Outside CBD large urban areas have witnesses the development of: suburban CBDs, retail parks, urban superstores, out-of-town shopping centres, internet shopping and home delivery services.
Other services
= health, education, sport
The changing central business district
= Most CBDs have a core and a frame. Over these years, developing countries have been including: pedestrian zones, indoor shopping centres, environmental improvements, greater public transport, ring roads around the CBD.
Residential segregation
= London is a good example. Contrast between relative deprviation of inner London and the affluence of outer London is striking. Intense deprivation = East End of London.
Residential mosaic
= the complex pattern of different residential areas within a city reflect variations in socio-economic status that are mainly attribute to income and also age and ethnicity.
Gentrification
= a process in which wealthier people move into, renovate and restore run-down housing in an inner city or neglected area.
Rural-urban fringe
= Boundary zone where rural and urban land uses meet. It's an area of transition from agriculture and other rural land sues to urban uses.
Constrained location theory
= identifies the problems encountered by manufacturing firms in congested cities.
Deindustrialisation
= long-term absolute decline of employment in manufacturing.
Post-industrial city
= a city whose economy is dominated by services and new, high-tech industries.
6.4 - The management of urban settlements
Slums
= run-down areas of a city characterised by sub-standard housing and squalor and lacking in tenure security
Favelas =
Brazilian term for informal, shanty-type settlements. Generally involve the illegal occupation of land by squatters.
Densely packed informal settlements made of wood, corrugated iron and other makeshift materials. Later they are replaced by concrete block construction.
Corticos
= comprise decaying formal housing, mainly in the inner city.
Income equality, lack of economic growth, in-migration --> poverty, lack of affordable housing --> slum formation
The slum housing problem
estimated that substandard housing occupies 70% of Sao Paulo's area
Squatter settlements are located:
Near gullies
On floodplains
On river banks
along railways
beside main roads
adjacent to industrial areas
(these are frequently areas that have been avoided by the formal building sector as building difficulties and hazards)
Heliopolis: development & improvement of favelas
Heliopolis is Sao Paulo's largest slum.
established from late 1960s and it now home to over 100,000 people in a mix of absolute & semi-poverty.
developed rapidly in the 1970s due to a high level of land invasion.
public transport is very limited.
much of the housing is still makeshift in nature & fire remains a risk
high rate of unemployment
drug gangs & violence remains considerable problems
The Heliopolis Housing Project was initiated in 2010 to provide new housing as well as to improve urban living & leisure spaces, & educational & health facilities.
Heliopolis is a slum that has matured & been improved, although much still remains to be done.
The provision of transport infrastructure for a city: Cairo
Cairo is the largest city in Africa and one of the most densely populated urban areas in the world.
Transport is the most essential form of infrastructure.
Cairo has struggled to keep up with the rapidly rising demand for the movement of both goods & people resulting in:
heavy congestion
pollution
increasing economic inefficiency
Transportation in Cairo comprimises;
railway system
Cairo metro
a limited tram system
ferries across the river Nile
a major international airport
high levels of investment in road transport as Cairo has expanded in population & land area.
7 bridges now span the Nile
Downtown expressways & flyovers have been built to try to reduce congestion
a 100km ring road was completed in the 1990s.
However, critics say that new roads create more traffic.
car levels are high & rising.
lack of sufficient off-street parking, accident rate is high, traffic management viewed as high.
Notes on ch6 from Mr Doughty
Urban renewal - particularly in CBD - often dur to de-industrialised areas renewed and redeveloped - areas that were docks and canals etc… now flats and business accommodation. E.g. Salford Quays, London
Renewal - gentrification - improvements that raises prices - local people can no longer afford the rent and they move out - changes the whole economic profile of an area. E.g. Battersea power station + Battersea.
World cities - Airports, HQs, major trading hubs.
CBD = expensive place to live but needs t be reimagined and developed - competes out of town parks and online shopping. Danger that CBDs can die without investment. Dying CBD is a place for vape shops, charity shops, empty shops. Population will decline, crime will increase.
Look at urban models on pg 173 and learn minimum 2.