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CHEMISTRY 1411 - Coggle Diagram

- - - - 2
        
        mol known = M × L
      - 1
        
        write balanced equation
      - 4
        
        solve unknown M = mol/L
      - 3
        
        use mole ratio
      - do not assume 1:1 unless balanced equation says 1:1
    - - known concentration used to find unknown
    - - indicator color change
    - - stoichiometric amounts exactly react
  - - - bubbles/fizzing/gas produced
    - - carbonate + acid → CO₂
      - sulfite + acid → SO₂
      - ammonium + base → NH₃
  - - - H⁺ + OH⁻ → H₂O
    - - acid + base → water + salt
  - - - neutral formulas
    - - soluble strong electrolytes split into ions
    - - unchanged ions on both sides
    - - only reacting species
    - - 2
        
        split aqueous strong electrolytes
      - 3
        
        cancel spectator ions
      - 4
        
        write net ionic equation
      - 1
        
        write balanced molecular equation
      - do not split solids, liquids, gases, weak electrolytes
  - - - aqueous ions form insoluble solid
    - - 3
        
        use solubility rules
      - 2
        
        write correct formulas
      - 4
        
        assign phases
      - 1
        
        swap ion partners
      - 5
        
        balance
        
        products must have correct ionic formulas before balancing
  - - - dissolves in water
    - - forms solid precipitate
    - - many chlorides soluble except Ag⁺, Pb²⁺, Hg₂²⁺
      - many sulfates soluble except Ba²⁺, Pb²⁺, Sr²⁺, Ca²⁺
      - nitrates soluble
      - carbonates/phosphates/hydroxides often insoluble unless Group 1 or NH₄⁺
      - Group 1 and NH₄⁺ soluble
  - - - substance spreads through solvent
    - - ionic compound separates into ions
    - - forms ions and conducts electricity
    - - mostly/fully ionizes or dissociates
    - - partially ionizes
    - - does not form ions
  - - - M₁V₁ = M₂V₂
  - - - M = mol / L
        
        volume must be in liters
      - Rearranged
        
        mol = M × L
        
        L = mol / M
    - - grams → moles
      - mL → L
      - M = mol/L
  - - - substance dissolved
    - - dissolving medium
    - - homogeneous mixture
    - - dissolved in water
  - - - % mass = mass solute / mass solution × 100
    - - % m/v = grams solute / mL solution × 100
    - - % error = |experimental − accepted| / accepted × 100
  - - - electron transfer
    - - loses electrons
        
        formal charge and oxidation state are different
      - oxidation number increases
    - - gains electrons
      - oxidation number decreases
    - - bookkeeping charge
    - - OIL RIG
- - - - observation → hypothesis → experiment → law/theory
        
        Hypothesis
        
        testable explanation
        
        Law
        
        describes what happens
        
        Theory
        
        explains why it happens
      - Domains
        
        Symbolic domain
        
        formulas, symbols, equations
        
        Macroscopic domain
        
        what you see or measure
        
        Microscopic domain
        
        atoms, ions, molecules
  - - - length = meter, m
      - mass = kilogram, kg
      - time = second, s
      - temperature = kelvin, K
      - amount = mole, mol
  - - - same substance, different form
      - melting, freezing, boiling, dissolving sugar
    - - atoms rearrange into new substances
      - burning, rusting, precipitate forming
    - - gas produced
      - precipitate forms
      - color change
      - heat/light change
  - - - observed without changing identity
      - color, density, boiling point, melting point
    - - observed through chemical change
      - flammability, acidity, corrosion, reactivit
      - If a new substance forms, it is chemical.
  - - - use conversion factors so unwanted units cancel
    - - given × conversion factor = wanted unit
    - - 1
        
        start with given number
      - 2
        
        place unwanted unit on bottom
      - 3
        
        place wanted unit on top
      - 4
        
        cancel units
      - 5
        
        calculate
      - 6
        
        round with sig figs
  - - - two or more elements chemically bonded
    - - variable composition
        
        Homogeneous mixture
        
        same throughout
        
        also called solution
        
        Heterogeneous mixture
        
        uneven composition
    - - one type of atom
      - cannot be chemically broken down
    - - fixed composition
      - element or compound
  - - - nonzero digits count
      - zeros between nonzero digits count
      - leading zeros do not count
      - trailing zeros after decimal count
    - - answer uses least number of sig figs
    - - counted or defined values do not limit sig figs
    - - answer uses least number of decimal places
  - - - solid
      - liquid
      - gas
      - aqueous, aq = dissolved in water
  - - - very large numbers
      - very small numbers
      - atoms
      - molecules
      - photons
  - - - g/L or g/mL
    - - d = m / V
      - Rearranged
        
        m = dV
        
        V = m / d
    - - mass and volume are connected
      - identifying a substance
      - converting volume of solution to mass
- - - - Mass of 1 mole of substance
        
        atomic weights from the table are your molar masses
    - - 1
        
        use atomic weights from periodic table
      - 2
        
        multiply by subscripts
      - 3
        
        add all atoms
    - - include water after dot
        
        example: CuBr₂·4H₂O includes 4H₂O
  - - - produces H⁺ in water
    - - hydro-root-ic acid
    - - produces OH⁻ in water
    - - hydro-root-ic acid
      - -ite → -ous acid
    - - neutralizations
      - titrations
  - - - mol = grams / molar mass
    - - grams = mol × molar mass
    - - particles = mol × 6.022 × 10²³
    - - mol = particles / 6.022 × 10²³
    - - grams compound → mol compound → particles compound → atoms using subscript
  - - - phosphate PO₄³⁻
      - carbonate CO₃²⁻
      - sulfite SO₃²⁻
      - hydroxide OH⁻
      - sulfate SO₄²⁻
      - acetate C₂H₃O₂⁻
      - nitrite NO₂⁻
      - ammonium NH₄⁺
      - nitrate NO₃⁻
      - permanganate MnO₄⁻
      - chlorate ClO₃⁻
      - cyanide CN⁻
  - - - % element = mass of element in formula / molar mass × 100
  - - - tri
      - di
      - tetra
      - mono
      - penta
      - hexa
      - hepta
      - octa
      - nona
      - deca
  - - - 3
        
        divide by smallest mole value
      - 4
        
        multiply to whole numbers if needed
      - 1
        
        assume 100 g if percentages given
      - 2
        
        convert grams to moles
  - - - metal + nonmetal
      - metal + polyatomic ion
      - ammonium + anion
    - - total positive charge = total negative charge
    - - identify cation
      - balance charges
      - reduce ratio
      - use parentheses for multiple polyatomic ions
      - identify anion
  - - - multiplier = molecular mass / empirical formula mass
    - - multiply empirical subscripts by multiplier
  - - - abbreviation for element
    - - shows elements and atom ratios
    - - number of atoms in formula
        
        changing a subscript changes the substance
    - - umber of molecules/formula units in reaction
  - - - CO₂ gives carbon
      - H₂O gives hydrogen
      - leftover sample mass gives other element
    - - CO₂ → mol CO₂ → mol C
      - H₂O → mol H₂O → mol H
      - convert C and H to grams
      - subtract from sample mass to find other element
      - convert all to moles
      - divide by smallest
- - - - ΔH negative
      - heat released
        
        calorimeter temperature increases means reaction released heat
      - surroundings warm up
    - - heat absorbed
      - ΔH positive
      - surroundings cool down
  - - - heat needed to raise 1 g by 1°C
    - - q = mCsΔT
    - - Tfinal − Tinitial
    - - heat needed to change whole object/calorimeter
    - - q = CΔT
  - - - w = −PΔV
    - - ΔV positive
      - w negative
    - - ΔV negative
      - w positive
  - - - qsolution = mCsΔT
    - - qrxn = −qsolution
    - - density 1.00 g/mL means mL ≈ g
  - - - ΔE = q + w
    - - q negative = heat out of system
      - w positive = work done on system
      - q positive = heat into system
      - w negative = work done by system
  - - - qrxn = −qcal
    - - qcal = CcalΔT
  - - - part being studied
    - - everything around system
    - - system + surroundings
    - - boundary
  - - - ΔH belongs to the balanced equation exactly as written
      - if equation is multiplied, ΔH also multiplies
    - - grams → moles → kJ
      - kJ → moles → grams
  - - - energy transferred due to temperature difference
    - - average kinetic energy
      - heat and temperature are not the same
  - - - reverse equation → flip ΔH sign
      - multiply equation → multiply ΔH
      - add equations → add ΔH
  - - - motion energy
    - - stored energy
    - - capacity to do work or transfer heat
    - - particle-motion energy
  - - - enthalpy change when 1 mol compound forms from elements
    - - ΔH°f = 0
    - - ΔH°rxn = ΣnΔH°f(products) − ΣnΔH°f(reactants)
- - - - caused by particle collisions
    - - P = pressure
      - V = volume
      - n = moles
      - T = temperature
    - - compressible
      - fills container
      - particles far apart
  - - - K = °C + 273.15
  - - - pressure-volume inverse
      - constant T and n
      - P₁V₁ = P₂V₂
      - compressed/expanded
    - - constant P and n
      - V₁/T₁ = V₂/T₂
      - volume-temperature direct
      - volume changes with temperature
    - - constant V and n
      - pressure-temperature direct
      - steel container/constant volume
      - P₁/T₁ = P₂/T₂
    - - V₁/n₁ = V₂/n₂
      - volume-moles direct
      - constant P and T
      - moles of gas change
  - - - P₁V₁/T₁ = P₂V₂/T₂
      - both temperatures must be Kelvin
    - - n stays constant
      - P, V, and T change
  - - - PV = nRT
      - traps
        
        °C not converted to K
        
        pressure not converted to atm
        
        mL not converted to L
    - - 0.08206 L·atm/mol·K
    - - P = atm
      - V = L
      - n = mol
      - T = K
    - - one gas state is described
      - solve for P, V, n, or T
  - - - Ptotal = P₁ + P₂ + P₃ …
    - - Xᵢ = nᵢ / ntotal
    - - Pᵢ = XᵢPtotal
  - - - d = PM / RT
    - - M = dRT / P
      - M = mRT / PV
  - - - Pgas = Ptotal − PH₂O
      - Common trap:
        
        forgetting to subtract water vapor pressure
    - - use PV = nRT
  - - - grams reactant → mol reactant → mol gas → P/V/T
      - PVT → mol gas → mol other substance → grams
  - - - gases are particles in constant motion
      - temperature relates to kinetic energy
    - - gas spreading out
    - - gas escaping through tiny opening
    - - rate₁/rate₂ = √(MM₂/MM₁)
    - - lighter gas moves faster
- - - - in nucleus
      - +1 charge
      - determines element
    - - in nucleus
      - 0 charge
      - changes isotope
    - - outside nucleus
      - −1 charge
      - controls ion charge and bonding
  - - - protons
    - - protons + neutrons
    - - A − Z
    - - protons − electrons
        
        charge changes electrons, not protons
    - - protons = electrons
    - - fewer electrons than protons
    - - more electrons than protons
  - - - Same
        
        protons
      - Different
        
        neutrons
        
        mass number
    - - average mass = Σ(isotope mass × fractional abundance)
  - - - positive
      - lost electrons
    - - negative
      - gained electrons
  - - - atomic theory
    - - electron
        
        cathode ray tube
    - - electron charge
        
        oil drop
    - - nucleus
        
        gold foil experiment
    - - neutron
    - - periodic table
    - - radioactivity
  - - - vertical column
      - similar properties
    - - horizontal row
      - energy-level pattern
    - - main-group elements
    - - d-block metals
    - - lanthanides and actinides
  - - - Alkali metals
    - - Alkaline earth metals
    - - Pnictogens
    - - Chalcogens
    - - Halogens
    - - Noble gases
  - - - left/center
      - lose electrons
      - form cations
    - - stair-step region
      - mixed properties
    - - upper right
      - gain or share electrons
- - - - 2 shared electrons
    - - 4 shared electrons
    - - 6 shared electrons
    - - nonbonding electron pair
  - - - Be and B can have incomplete octets
      - period 3 and below can expand octet
      - odd-electron species exist
    - - duet rule, 2 electrons
  - - - equal/nearly equal sharing
    - - unequal sharing
    - - electronegativity difference
  - - - count total valence electrons
    - - add electrons for negative charge
      - subtract electrons for positive charge
    - - least electronegative
      - choose central atom
      - never H
    - - connect atoms with single bonds
    - - complete outer octets
    - - put leftover electrons on central atom
    - - form double/triple bonds if needed
    - - check formal charges
    - - using total electrons instead of valence electrons
  - - - Group 2 = 2
      - Group 13 = 3
      - Group 1 = 1
      - Group 14 = 4
      - Group 15 = 5
      - Group 16 = 6
      - Group 17 = 7
      - Group 18 = 8
  - - - negative charge on more electronegative atom
      - lowest formal charges
      - total formal charge equals overall charge
    - - FC = valence e⁻ − nonbonding e⁻ − ½ bonding e⁻
      - formal charge is not the same as oxidation state
  - - - electron transfer
      - metal + nonmetal
    - - electron sharing
      - nonmetal + nonmetal
    - - mobile electrons among metal atoms
  - - - SO₄²⁻
      - HCO₂⁻
      - O₃
- - - - smaller atomic radius across a period
      - higher ionization energy across a period
  - - - larger atoms down a group
      - easier electron removal down a group
  - - - increases down and left
    - - down = more shells
      - left = weaker effective nuclear pull
  - - - smaller than neutral atom
    - - larger than neutral atom
    - - same electron count
      - more protons = smaller radius
  - - - increases up and right
    - - smaller atoms hold electrons more tightly
  - - - more favorable toward upper right, especially halogens
  - - - increases up and right
    - - fluorine
  - - - tendency to lose electrons
    - - tendency to form positive ions
    - - increases down and left
  - - - Groups 1–2 plus He
    - - Groups 13–18
    - - transition metals
    - - lanthanides/actinides
- - - - frequency, ν
      - amplitude
      - wavelength, λ
  - - - radio
      - microwave
      - infrared
      - visible
      - ultraviolet
      - X-ray
      - gamma
    - - shorter wavelength = higher energy
      - higher frequency = higher energy
  - - - c = λν
    - - E = hν
    - - E = hc/λ
  - - - smooth range of wavelengths
    - - bright line spectrum from electrons releasing energy
    - - absorbs energy
      - ΔE positive
    - - ΔE negative
      - emits energy
  - - - electrons described by probability, not fixed paths
    - - mathematical probability description
    - - region where electron is likely found
    - - region of zero probability
    - - equal-energy orbitals
  - - - principal energy level/shell
    - - s = 0
      - p = 1
      - d = 2
      - f = 3
      - subshell/shape
    - - orbital orientation
    - - spin
      - +½ or −½
  - - - 3 orbitals
      - 6 electrons
    - - 5 orbitals
      - 10 electrons
    - - 1 orbital
      - 2 electrons
    - - 7 orbitals
      - 14 electrons
  - - - arrangement of electrons in orbitals
    - - fill lower energy first
    - - max 2 electrons per orbital with opposite spins
    - - single-fill equal-energy orbitals before pairing
    - - lowest-energy arrangement
    - - higher-energy arrangement
    - - ions require adding/subtracting electrons first
  - - - draw orbital boxes
      - fill arrows using Hund’s Rule and Pauli
      - write electron configuration
- - - - Steps
        
        2
        
        calculate how much excess reactant reacts
        
        3
        
        subtract from original amount
        
        1
        
        find limiting reactant
  - - - maximum predicted product
    - - product actually recovered
    - - % yield = actual / theoretical × 100
  - - - reactant that makes the least product
      - smallest mass is not automatically limiting
    - - leftover reactant
    - - 1
        
        convert each reactant to same product
      - 2
        
        compare product amounts
      - 3
        
        smaller product amount = limiting reactant
  - - - amount relationships in balanced equation
    - - coefficient ratio from balanced equation
      - coefficient ratio must come from balanced equation
    - - 1
        
        balance equation
      - 2
        
        convert given grams to moles
      - 3
        
        use mole ratio
      - 4
        
        convert moles wanted to grams if needed
    - - grams A → mol A → mol B → grams B
  - - - “one replaces another”
        
        A + BC → AC + B
    - - “two switch”
        
        AB + CD → AD + CB
    - - “break down”
        
        AB → A + B
    - - “burn”
        
        fuel + O₂ → CO₂ + H₂O
    - - “put together”
        
        A + B → AB
    - - “cancelling out”
        
        acid + base → water + salt
  - - - change coefficients only
      - changing subscripts instead of coefficients
    - - 1
        
        write correct formulas
      - 2
        
        count atoms
      - 3
        
        balance complex compounds first
      - 4
        
        balance elements last
      - 5
        
        check atoms
      - 6
        
        reduce if possible
  - - - left side
    - - right side
    - - yields/produces
    - - s = solid
      - l = liquid
      - g = gas
      - aq = dissolved in water
- - - - region of electron density around central atom
    - - double bond
        
        double bond counts as one domain
      - triple bond
      - lone pair
      - single bond
  - - - all electron domains
    - - atom positions only
    - - affect shape but are not named as atoms
  - - - 180°
      - linear
    - - trigonal planar
      - 120°
    - - tetrahedral
      - 109.5°
    - - 90°, 120°, 180°
      - trigonal bipyramidal
    - - octahedral
      - 90°
  - - - linear
    - - trigonal planar
    - - bent
    - - tetrahedral
    - - trigonal pyramidal
    - - bent
    - - trigonal bipyramidal
    - - seesaw
    - - T-shaped
    - - linear
    - - octahedral
    - - square pyramidal
    - - square planar
  - - - mixing atomic orbitals to form bonding orbitals
      - Shortcut
        
        count electron domains
    - - sp
    - - sp²
    - - sp³
    - - sp³d
    - - sp³d²
  - - - side-by-side overlap
      - additional bond in double/triple bond
    - - first bond
      - head-on overlap
    - - triple = 1σ + 2π
      - single = 1σ
      - double = 1σ + 1π
  - - - bond polarity
        
        polar bonds do not always mean polar molecule
      - molecular shape
    - - dipoles do not cancel
    - - dipoles cancel by symmetry
- - - - higher energy
      - destabilizes molecule
      - marked with *
    - - σ = sigma bonding
      - σ* = sigma antibonding
      - π = pi bonding
      - π* = pi antibonding
    - - lower energy
      - stabilizes molecule
      - electron density between nuclei
  - - - B₂, C₂, N₂: π2p before σ2p
      - O₂, F₂: σ2p before π2p
  - - - bonding molecular orbital
      - antibonding molecular orbital
  - - - bond order = (bonding electrons − antibonding electrons) / 2
    - - higher bond order = stronger, shorter, more stable
      - bond order 0 = unstable/no bond
  - - - unpaired electrons
      - attracted to magnetic field
    - - all electrons paired
    - - O₂ = paramagnetic
      - N₂ = diamagnetic