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English Language Paper 2 - Coggle Diagram

- - - - Lakoff
        
        Women are deprived of the opportunity to acquire language fully
        
        Women use empty adjectives, hedging, and tag questions
      - Jespersen
        
        Women are innately linguistically inferior
        
        Women are like foreigners when they speak
    - - Fishman
        
        Women are forced to do the "interactional shitwork"
      - Zimmerman & West
        
        Male students in California interrupt much more frequently than female students
      - O'Barr & Atkins
        
        Witnesses in court cases use Lakoff's features of "women's language" regardless of gender :
    - - Tannen
        
        Due to being raised completely differently, women and men develop completely different languages
        
        Women are more collaborative and men are more competitive
        
        Women are much less direct in their speech
      - Gray
        
        Author of "Men are from Mars, Women are from Venus"
    - - Butler
        
        Performativity — Gender is expressed through actions such as language use
      - Baxter
        
        When the gender of children is unknown it is difficult to use the difference model to predict which they are from their language
      - Podesva
        
        Heath — Doctor, who varied his use of falsetto based on whether he was at work, calling his dad or at a barbecue with his boyfriend
      - Barrett
        
        Drag Queens use exaggerated feminine and masculine language for comedy and performance
      - Cameron
        
        Gapun Study
        
        Women in the Papua New Guinea town of Gapun commonly express their discontent through a "kros", where they use strong, direct language. Women are stereotyped as too direct and emotional to be powerful
        
        Language diversity is much more complicated than a binary gendered split
      - Hyde
        
        Gender Similarities Hypothesis — more difference within than between genders
  - - - British-Pakistani boys in Bradford developed their own linguistic forms to express an intersecting identity
    - - Anwar — an Indian man who varies his use of Indian English based on context
    - - Polish immigrants to Manchester pronounce -ing as the more Polish -ink if they intend to return to Poland
    - - Kerswill — MLE is a dialect with defined grammatical and phonetic features
      - Gates — MLE varies by ethnicity
  - - - Martha's Vineyard — Locals use a more typical islander accent to distance themselves from New York holidayers
      - New York — use of prestige American rhoticity in "fourth floor" varies by department store and by whether the person speaking is repeating themself for clarity
    - - Bolton — girls differentiating themselves into Communities of Practice (CoP) that use the non-standard singular "were" at varying levels of frequency
    - - 1960s Matched Guise Study — RP speakers seen as more intelligent and believable but non-standard speakers found more honest and trustworthy
    - - Norfolk — use of non-standard pronunciation of "walking" varies by class and gender, with men more likely to exaggerate their non-standard use and the opposite exaggeration used by women
    - - Milton Keynes — Dialect levelling in a New Town
    - - Belfast — closer social groups (more associated with men) have more non-standard features of language
    - - Teesside — primary school pupils using non-standard singular "us" to signify group identity could not be stopped by teachers, but were perfectly capable of using the standard
    - - Matched guise study that found strong prejudice against the Essex dialect
  - - - Natively English-speaking pilots deviate from the standard, leading to miscommunication with non-native speakers from Korea only familiar with the standard
    - - Phatic talk develops relationships in a workplace to make transactional communication more effective
    - - Workplaces as discourse communities with their own language use for their own goals
    - - Instrumental Power — power derived from authority, status, force
      - Influential Power — power derived from persuasion
  - - - Kachru
        
        Inner Circle
        
        English is the majority language
        
        Outer Circle
        
        English is an established prestige language
        
        Expanding Circle
        
        English is an increasingly important language
      - Schneider
        
        Dynamic model
        
        Foundation
        
        English is introduced to an area
        
        Endonormative Stabilisation
        
        Standards and rules develop within the area instead of outside it
        
        Exonormative stabilisation
        
        Standards and rules come from where the English speakers come from e.g. Britain
        
        Differentiation
        
        Dialects develop
      - Modiano
        
        World Englishes share a large number of features
      - McArthur
        
        World Englishes are varieties of a central "world standard English"
      - Strevens
        
        Family tree model
    - - Language death is caused by linguistic hegemony
    - - Multi-dialectism — There is a need for a World Standard English as a core for the lingua franca, but it shouldn't replace world Englishes
    - - Simpler, more limited forms of English that are easier to learn and use internationally
    - - Lingua Franca core — some phonemic features of English like "th" are unnecessary, but others like consonant clusters are necessary
- - - - Vikings
        
        Normans
        
        Printing Press (1476)
        
        Colonisation
        
        American English
        
        Lingua Franca
        
        1 more item...
        
        Standardised itself differently from British English, leading to codified differences in spelling and grammar — after the rise of American international power, more "Americanisms" have been noted in British English
        
        Spread English worldwide and brought words from colonised regions such as "bungalow" (India) and "moccasin" (North America)
        
        Caused a wave of standardisation and increased rates of publication and literacy
        
        Introduced prestigious latinate vocabulary such as "introduce", "prestigious", "latinate" and "vocabulary"
        
        Regularised plurals, loaned words such as They/Them and kill
      - Origin of the Language
  - - - Author of the most influential grammar of English
    - - Old man yells at cloud
    - - Telegraph journalist — Sardonically recommended we should "all just kill ourselves" after an acquaintance used "maybe" instead of "may be"
    - - Author of the first comprehensive English dictionary — in his attempt, he became much more descriptivist
    - - Brought the printing press to England— famously complained about dialectal variation causing misunderstandings
  - - - English is seen as a sacred construction that must be protected against change
    - - English is seen as changing only out of the laziness of its users
    - - The spread of changes in a language is seen as fundamentally damaging, like a disease
  - - - A word's meaning gets more positive connotations
        
        "sick"
    - - A word's meaning gets more negative connotations
        
        "villain" used to mean a farmer
    - - A word gets applied to more meanings
        
        "holiday" used to only mean holy days
    - - A word gets fewer meanings
        
        "deer" used to mean any four-legged ani
  - - - "BBC"
    - - "NATO"
    - - "Brunch"
    - - "Internet"
      - "Keyboard"
    - - "Editor" —> "Edit"
    - - Word from another language
        
        "Schadenfreude"
    - - Word translated piece-by-piece from another language
        
        German "Lehn.wort" —> English "Loan.word"
  - - - Potential
        
        There is a need for a change
      - Implementation
        
        The change happens e.g. a new word emerges
      - Diffusion
        
        The change spreads through society
      - Codification
        
        The change becomes standard
    - - Functional Theory — Changes occur out of their benefit for communication
    - - Wave Model — Changes spread like waves that have more impact the more socially close a speaker is to the change's origin
    - - S-curve Model — the spread of a change starts slow, speeds up and then slows as it becomes normal in language
    - - Random Fluctuations — language change is unpredictable and random
    - - Value judgments — language change happens because of people's attitudes to language e.g. political correctness
- - - - AO2: 20 Marks | AO5: 10 Marks