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Ecology Part 2 - Coggle Diagram

- - - - the sea star affects its community by feeding on and there by limiting the abundance of a competitively dominant species, a mussel
- - - - EX: Salmon
    - - EX: Humans
- - - - For example, the number of oak trees per square
        kilometer in the Minnesota county
    - - Capture a second sample of individuals (n)
      - note how many of them are marked (x)
      - Capture, tag, and release a random sample of
        individuals (s) in a population
      - population size : N = sn/x
    - - Immigration, the influx of new individuals from other
        areas, and births increase population size
      - Emigration, the movement of individuals out of a
        population, and deaths decrease population size
    - - Uniform
        
        exhibit terriltoriality
        
        EX: penguins
        
        Evenly spaced
      - Random
        
        lacking forces that affect it (absence of influence)
        
        EX: mice, insects, flowers
      - Clumped
        
        common
        
        safety in numbers
  - - - Low death rates during early and middle life
        and a sharp increase in death rates later in life
      - Found in large mammals (for example, humans and
        elephants) that produce few offspring but provide
        them with good care
    - - Constant death rate over the life span
      - Found in some rodents, invertebrates, lizards, and
        annual plants
    - - High death rates for the young; death rate
        steeply declines for survivors of early period die-off
      - Found in organisms that produce very large
        numbers of offspring but provide little or no care
        (for ex, long-lived plants, many fishes, and
        most marine invertebrates)
- - - - Ex: influenza (flu) and tuberculosis affect a
        greater percentage of people in densely populated
        cities than in rural areas
    - - Ex: hormonal changes in white-footed
        mice delay sexual maturation and depress the
        immune system at high density
      - For some populations, intrinsic (physiological)
        factors appear to regulate population size
      - Birth rates drop even when food and shelter are
        abundant
    - - Ex: farmers reduce competition by
        applying fertilizers to reduce nutrient limitations on
        crop yield
    - - Ex: cheetahs use chemical markers in
        urine to warn other cheetahs of their territorial
        boundaries
    - - Ex: the concentration of ethanol produced
        by brewer’s yeast becomes toxic at high population
        density
  - - - Local populations in a metapopulation occupy
        discrete patches of suitable habitat surrounded by
        unsuitable habitat
- - - - the elephant population in Kruger
        National Park, South Africa, grew exponentially after
        hunting was banned
- - - - Ex: The niche of a tropical tree lizard, for instance, includes the temperature range it tolerates, the size of branches on which it perches, the time of day when it is active, and the sizes and kinds of insects it eats. Such factors define the lizard’s niche, or ecological role—how it fits into an ecosystem.
    - - EX: two species of Galápagos finches, Geospiza fuliginosa and Geospiza fortis: Beak depths in these species are similar in allopatric populations but have diverged considerably in sympatric populations
    - - Cryptic coloration, or camouflage, makes prey difficult to see
      - Batesian mimicry, a palatable or harmless species mimics an unpalatable or harmful species to which it is not closely related.
        
        The larva of the hawkmoth Hemeroplanes ornatus puffs up its head and thorax when disturbed, looking like the head of a small venomous snake
      - Animals with effective chemical defenses often exhibit bright aposematic coloration, or warning coloration, such as that of poison dart frogs
      - In Müllerian mimicry, two or more unpalatable species, such as the cuckoo bee and yellow jacket, resemble each other
        
        The mimic octopus Thaumoctopus mimicus (Figure 54.7) can take on the appearance and movement of more than a dozen marine animals, including crabs, sea stars, sea snakes, fish, and stingrays
    - - parasites that feed on the external surface of a host, such as ticks and lice, are called ectoparasites
      - Parasites that live within the body of their host, such as tapeworms, are called endoparasites;
    - - An interaction that benefits the individuals of one of the interacting species but neither harms nor helps the individuals of the other species is called commensalism
        
        cattle egrets feed on insects flushed out of the grass by grazing bison, cattle, horses, and other herbivores
      - Mutualism is a interaction that benefits individuals of both of the interacting species.
        
        the acacia-ant example shown in Figure 54.9, each of the interacting individuals depends on the other for their survival and reproduction