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Politics and Culture under the High Empire - Coggle Diagram
Politics and Culture under the High Empire
Hadrian the Travelling Emperor
After Domitian --> the 'Five Good Emperors'
The 'Five Good Emperors'
Nerva
Trajan
Hadrian
Antonius Pius
Marcus Aurelius
Follows the 'tyrannous' reign of Domitian
Includes Domitian, but was considered controversial and excessive
Some even claim there was an issue of legitimacy - that he was not formally adopted
Hadrian
117 - 138 AD
An absent / travelling emperor
His vision of the empire differed from his predecessors
Send most time outside of Italy
Major shifts
He decentred Italy
He focused on the provinces
The role of the provinces became crucial
Background and accession
Background
Born in Spain
Distant relative of Trajan
Married Trajan's great-niece, Sabina (100 AD)
Successful military career in Trajan's campaigns
Involved in Trajan's final Parthian campaign
Spent more than half of his reign outside of Italy
Involved in the civic life of Athens
Accession to power
Adopted by Trajan, 9th August 117 AD (2 days before Trajan's death)
Some say he was adopted out of necessity
Some say he was not formally adopted
Regardless, he ruled for about 20 years until his death
Cassius Dio,
Roman History
, 69.1
'Hadrian had not been adopted by Trajan'
Trajan had kept him close but never showed interest in naming him successor
Claims it was a plot between Trajan's wife who secured the succession of Hadrian after Trojan died
Legitimising rule
Coinage depicting the legend of adoption
Deified Trajan
Divine parentage; portrays him as the divine heir
Key policies and focus
Abandoned Trajan's latest conquests in Armenia, Mesopotamia, Assyria, etc.
Rejected the pre-existing policies on expansion and focused on security and consolidation of the empire's frontiers (eg. Hadrian's Wall)
Credited for streamlining legal and judicial proceedings (and administration of the empire in general)
While hardly ever being in Rome, he operated the empire successfully
Expanded Trajan's welfare scheme, cared much about the empire's infrastructure, initiated much public building across the empire, and Benefaction
Hands on approach to government
Historia Augusta,
Hadrian
, 22.11
'Hadrian often heard lawsuit in Rome and in the provinces'
Hadrian travelled with the central administration apparatus of the empire, rather than alone
Cassius Dio,
Roman History
, 69.6.3
Reputation of talking with the common people and engaging with them wherever he went
'He viewed and inspected absolutely everything personally'
Took care of the military discipline
Cassius Dio,
Roman History
, 69.5.2
'Indeed he saw many [provincial cities] - more than any other emperor'
Made public appearances to many people
Makes us wonder how he will have been perceived by the people in the provinces who were unlikely to have seen any previous emperor
Tertulian,
Apology
, 5.7
He was a curious person, who just wanted to inform himself in person about what he read about
'An explorer of all curiosities'
Travels
Travels
117-118 AD
Return to Rome from the East
Travelling along the frontiers inspecting the situations
121-123 AD
The Western Tour
123-125 AD
The First Eastern Tour
128-133/4 AD
The Second Eastern Tour
Sources
Cassius Dio,
History of Rome, Book 69
Historia Augusta,
Life of Hadrian
Commemorative coin issues
Monumental arches built in anticipation of the emperor's visit
Documentary sources (inscriptions, papyri)
Hadrian's Wall
'Hadrian was the first to construct a wall'
Historia Augusta,
Hadrian
, 11.2
Hadrian's 'Philhellenism'
'Grew rater deeply devoted to Greek studies'
Historia Augusta,
Hadrian
, 1.5
Close relationship with Athens, spending a considerable amount of time there
Granted Athenian citizenship in 11 AD
Extensive building programme, including restoration of old sanctuaries and tombs of historic figures and mythological heroes across Greece
Foundation of new festivals
Foundation of the Panhellenium, 131/2 AD
Endorsed a Hellenisation of the Roman Empire
Benefactor of all the Greeks
Paus.1.3.2
An attempt to 'Hellenise' the Jews (130 AD)
Decided to find a Roman colony off the city of Jerusalem, named Aelia Capitolina (Named after himself) and raised a new temple to Jupiter
Resulted in the Bar Kochba Revolt / the Third Jewish War, 132-134/5
Following the revolt, the province of Judea was renamed Syria Palestine and Jews were forbidden to enter Aelia Capitolina
Hadrian and Antinous
Many stories are mythologised around this
Rumours that Hadrian sacrificed Antinous to the gods
After his death, Hadrian set up statues of Antinous across the empire (having died in Egypt, many were in an Egyptian fashion)
Contributed to Hadrian's reputation of excessiveness amongst Roman moralists
Hadrian's vision of empire
Coins depicted individual provinces as kneeling female figures raised up by Hadrian
Restoration of the position of provinces from subduction
Other coin types celebrate the arrival of Hadrian and his interaction personally with provinces
Judea appears on Hadrian's coins as similar to the other provinces (despite more revolts from the area, as these would not support Hadrian's vision of empire)
Hadrian presented as a restorer of Italy (on coins)
Italy being depicted in the same way as the other provinces
Vision of empire as something Hadrian was consistent about from the early days
Promoted vision of unity and prosperity of the Roman world under his reign
Containment over expansion & security over conquest
Provincial reactions to Hadrian and criticism
Provincial reactions
Monuments of the anticipation of Hadrians arrival across the empire
Downside in documentary resources:
Would take excessive resources to support the arrival of Hadrian and his thousands of people
Criticisms
Illegitimacy / questionable rise to power
Policy against expansion and abandoning previous campaigns
Hellenism
Writer did not criticise Hadrian for his travel, but both
Aelius Aristides
and
Historia Augusta
praise Hadrian's successor, Antinous Pius, for not travelling, due to its financial burden on the provinces visited
The Antonines
Sources
Sources such as those of
Tacitus
and
Pliny
talk of the emperors of this period as great, with the rule over the Empire being superior, protecting all subjects
Tacitus
is considered a reliable and well-respected historian/author of this time
The view of a golden age in scholarship
Gibbon, 1776
places from the death of Domitian to the accession of Commdus as the time of best conditions in history
The 'Five Good Emperors'
The emperors
Nerva (96-98 AD)
Trajan (98-117 AD)
Hadrian (117-138 AD)
Antonius Pius (138-161 AD)
Marcus Aurelius (161-180 AD)
Long rule allows for stability in the empire
Their long reigns were considered positive and something longed for
They succeeded their predecessors through adoption, through election of the best possible candidate (rather than through a dynastic succession)
Family and blood relation were not discard, with each of them being related somewhat, usually through marriage
The Antonine Dynasty
The problem of sources
Sources of mid-c2nd are problematic, there is no good source for the reign of Antonius Pius
For his successors, we have close contemporary accounts (and contemporary eyewitness)
From
Cassius Dio
and
Herodian
BUT these bring their own problems
Historia Augusta
highly unreliable
Series of biographies of emperors, Caesars and usurpers, from 117-284 AD
Modelled on
Suetonius'
Lives of the Twelve Caesars
Claimed to be written by 6 different authors writing under Diocletian and Constantine I but now understood as the word of one single author writing in the 390s
Invents people
Invents documents
Invents events
Antoninus Pius
First attempt to regulate the succession failed
As the adopted candidate died shortly afterwards
Hadrian thus adopted Antinous Pius
Described as the embodiment of virtues in the
Historia Augusta
Positive view on the judgement of his rule
Modest
The name Pius was offered to him by the senate
Does not removed any of Hadrian's men in office and retained good men in positions of authority
Shows continuity and pleased the men of the senate
Did not ask for money from the people of the empire
Had the empire in hand so well that he did not need to travel
This is respected well by writer of him
Saved much money for the provincial population
Does not give up on the idea of military expansion (contrary to Hadrian)
A push against the boundaries set up by Hadrian
HOWEVER Antonius Pius does pick up Hadrian defence policies and too established walls (eg. the Antonine Wall)
Ideology of Roman rule
Differs to Hadrian's inner focus of the empire
Returns to a Trajanic perspective, focusing on expansion
Considered 'barbarians' as something to fight and conquer
His reign was not all that peaceful
Wars along the frontiers
Revolts (even in the heartland of Greco-Roman civilisation)
Economic prosperity
Literary, epigraphic, and archeological sources suggest economic prosperity until mid-c2nd
Renewal of building activity
From the start he seemed to favour Marcus Aurelius as future successor
Highlighted as he married him to his daughter
Marcus Aurelius and Lucius Verus
The two adopted brothers of Antinous Pius
Co emperors
Not badly viewed by writers, who recognised the philosophical elements of Marcus Aurelius
Marcus Aurelius
Made quite clear that Marcus Aurelius had visual superior authority
He was made pontifex Maximus
Always had one more consulship that Lucius Verus
Marcus Aurelius and Faustina Minor had at least 14 children (only 6 surviving into adulthood)
Richness of offspring was marketed in the presentation of Marcus Aurelius (a valued Roman tradition/ideals)
Gave Faustina a prominent position in the representation of Marcus Aurelius
Being one of the links to his adopted father and connecting him by blood
Produced both daughters and sons
A sign of divine favour
An emperor who could produce many children also worked in encouraging the people to copy, helping to revive the empire after a series of epidemics
The Northern Wars of Marcus Aurelius (166-180 AD)
Changes in the political landscape north/northeast of the Roman border
Led to increasing conflict along the Danube
Marcus Aurelius and Lucius Verus together mounted a counter-offensive in 168 AD
BUT Lucius died in 169 AD
After the funeral, Marcus Aurelius returned to the frontier and coordinated several counter attacks
117 AD --> peace agreements signed after successful Roman military campaigns
173 AD --> the Quadi people broke the agreement
They were defeated in 176 AD
They accepted peace terms
Marcus Aurelius
The philosopher emperor
Exchanged letters with his teacher Fronto, as a young man
Marcus Aurelius,
Meditations
Credited as both emperor and a true philosopher struggling of his role
Death
Died in a campaign against the Quadi
March 180 CE
His son, Commdous negotiated peace rather than continuing the campaign and returned to Rome
Lucius Verus
The Eastern War of Lucius Verus
The region of Armenia had been a bone of contention between Rome and Parthia since c1st BC
161 AD --> the Parthians invaded Armenia and installed their own client king there
Two Roman counterattacks were defeated
162-165 AD --> Lucius Veris leads the Roman counteroffensive
Ultimately successful
HOWEVER, troops returning form the eastern campaigns brought a 'pestilence' with them that spread through the empire for the next decade
A vulnerable moment for the Roman Empire
Loss of life
Disease
Cost of war
Revolts and rebellions
Rumours of the death of Marcus Aurelius prompted Cassius to declare himself emperor amongst his troops in Syria
Cassius was later killed by his own men
Highlights the vulnerability of the emperor's, HOWEVER
Revolts by the Bucoli people in Egypt
Regional diversity of prosperity and crisis
Crisis in the regions affected by the wars, as well as Hispania
Prosperity and increased settlement activity in other regions, such as Syria
The empire somewhat breaks apart in terms of economic development
Commdous
Ruled mainly from Rome
'Our history now descends from a kingdom of gold to one of iron and rust, as affairs did for the Romans of the day'
Cassius Dio,
Roman History
, 72.36.4
Did not have a good relationship with the senate
Behaved out of character
Dressed and fought as a gladiator
One of the lowest ranks of the social ladder
Not the virtues an emperor was meant to embody
In his self-representation, he associated himself closely to the gods/the divine
Negative publicity
Faced with numerous conspiracies
The final conspiracy was with his mistress and men close with him
For this he was murdered
After his death, the senate decided to blacken his name and to not commemorate him
After his death, followed the second Year of the Four Emperors, 193 AD
The Severans
Relevance of geography on people's lives under the empire
Economic activity
Descent
Pertinax declared emperor after the assassination of Commodus
He was shortly after assassinated
Didius Julianius
Assassinated
Septimius Severus proclaimed emperor in Pannonia
Born in Leptis Magna, North Africa
Pescennius Niger proclaimed emperor in Syria
Clodius Albinus born in Hadrumetum, North Africa
All based on the interest of troops and promotion of their commander as emperor
Septimius Severus (193-211 AD)
'The African Emperor'
Born in Leptis Magna, North Africa
190 AD --> Suffect consul
191 AD --> Commodus was appointed governor in Pannonia Superior
After the assassination of Commodus, he was proclaimed emperor by the troops in Pannonia
While Pertinax and Didius Julianus were soon assassinated, the other 3 contenders (Septimius Severus, Pescennius Niger, and Clodius Albinus) fought it out
Septimius Severus won victory against Pescennius Niger at the Battle of Issus
Objectives of Septimius Severus' activities in the east
Punish the supported of Pescennius Niger
Among the Roman client kings
Among the cities and elites in Roman Syria
Show his military valour to the troops of Pescennius Niger after defeating hm to ensure their loyalty going forward
Demonstrate his 'worth' as emperor by expanding the empire again and showcasing that he meets traditional expectation son a good emperor
Having came to power essentially though an usurpation, Septimius Severus had to ensure that others would not follow suit
Announced the adoption of himself and his family into the line of Marcus Aurelius
Announced the deification of Commodus
Encouraged his army to declare Albinus an enemy of the state
Closely modelled his representation and his family's representation on that of Marcus Aurelius
Both his sons rise in military ranks
Demonstrates his military strength
Prominent role if his family and children
Shown in coinage
Painted portrait on wood of the family
His family were promoted in all available media
Including the prominent position of Julia Domna in imperial representation
Julia Domna is prominently included in the representation of Septimius Severus and is given titles previously only employed by Faustina, wife of Marcus Aurelius (as well as other titles)
Septimius Severus as emperor
Cassius Dio,
Roman History
, 74.2
Cruel against the senators
Promised through legislation that he would never 'put any senator to death' yet was the 'first to violate this law' making away with 'many senators'
Supported the army and expend a lot of money and energy on making the army happy
Made it so that body-guards could be selected from anywhere rather than just Italy, Spain, Macedonia, and Noricum
Encouraged individuals in the army to be most loyal in the hope they could rise to this position
Creating legitimacy
Created loyalty of the army through increased funding/pay
Showcased his and his soldier's military achievements through images/monuments
Emperor as defender and expander of the empire
Restored a very large number of ancient buildings, and increased on them his ow name, as well as building new ones
Celebrates the secular games
The campaign in Britain
Seeing that his own sons were changing their mode of life and that the legions were becoming enervated by idleness, he made the campaign against Britain (though he knew he should not return)
Died on campaign in York
The senate declared that Serverus either should have never been born at all, or should have never died
ON one hand, he had proved very cruel, and on the other he was too useful to the state
Caracalla (211-217 AD)
Killed his brother, 211 AD
The Constitution Antoniniana
of 212 AD
Granted citizenship to everyone in the empire
Cassius Dio
hated him with a passion and in his
Roman History
declared that Caracalla 'combined in himself all the vices [of his 3 ethnic heritages]'
78.6
Tacitus
, HOWEVER, talks positively of Caracalla's regions, rather than their vices (
Agricola
4
)
Caracalla's reign through the eyes of the senatorial elite
Cassius Dio,
Roman History
78.9
Claimed he had squeezed the local elite of their money in order to fund his promises
Travels through the empire
Many preparations had to be made, costing lots of money for people across the empire
Assassinated by Macrinus, 217 AD
HOWEVER alloed Julia Domna and her family to retire to Emesa in Syria
Here, they mobilised money and support for a new bid for empire
Elagabalus (218-222 AD)
Sextus varius Avitus Bassianus
Elagabalus
14 years old
Too young to hold any public office
Not too young to hold the hereditary priesthood at Emesa
Enabling him public visibility
The priesthood was also used in Rome to showcase him in an adult role working for divine protection of the Roman state
A key virtue of a good emperor
Did not hold throne long due to conflict within his circle of support
Married 3 times
Divorce
married a Vestal Virgin - not allowed
Final failed
Many people trying to manipulate and use this young emperor
Causing conflict
Denouncing a 'bad emperor' for his allegedly 'depraved' sexuality was common as of c1st AD
People claimed he married a man, dresses as a woman, and wished to transition to a woman
Severus Alexander
Presented as the best possible choice as opposed to Elagabalus
Propaganda campaign involving bad-mouthing the dead emperor and hailing the new emperor
Faced a number of problems
Rebellions
Revolts
Mutiny of the Pretorian guards
Campaigns
New Germanic groups attacked the Rhine frontier
Forcing the emperor to abandon further plans in the east and mount a counteroffensive
In the east, Rome's 'eternal rivals', the Parthians, had been conquered by a new dynasty, the Sassanians, who were far more aggressive opponents, challenging Rome's control of Mesopotamia and Syria
He hoped to negotiate peace (including paying subsidies) but was assassinated
