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Research methods: Scientific processes - Coggle Diagram
Research methods:
Scientific processes
Sampling
Volunteer
= When ppts pick themselves through newspaper adverts, noticeboards or online
+Requires
minimal input
from researcher so less time consuming - researcher ends up with those who are more engaged
-
Volunteer bias
is a problem - asking for volunteers may attract a certain profile of person - one who is curious and more likely to please the researcher (may affect generalisation)
Systematic
= A system selects ppts - Picking every nth person from all possible ppts. N = number of people in the research population or needed for the sample
+
Objective
- once the system has been established the researcher has no influence over who is chosen
-
Time consuming
and ppts may refuse to take part (volunteer sample)
Stratified
= When you identify the subgroups and select ppts in proportion to their occurences
+
Representative
sample as it is designed to accuraely reflect the compositian of the population
-Cannot reflect all ways that people are different so complete representation is not possible
Random
= When every person of the target population has an equal chance of being selected (picking names out a hat)
+
Unbiased
- confounding of EVs should be equally divided between the different groups - internal validity
-Difficult and
time consuming
- a complete list of a target population is difficult to obtain
-May be
unrepresentative
- the random method may still provide similar people which cannot be generalised
-Some ppts may
refuse
to take part
Opportunity
= Uses people who are available at the time the study is carried out and willing to take part - convenience
+
Convenient and less costly
in terms of time and money
-
Suffers bias
- unrepresentative of the target population as it is drawn from a specific area so cannot be generalised
-Also researcher has
complete control
over selection of ppts and may avoid certain people (
researcher bias
)
Event
= A target behaviour or event is first established then the researcher records this event every time it occurs
+Useful to target behaviour or event that happens
infrequently
and could be missed if time sampling was used
-If the specified event is too
complex
the observer may overlook important details if using event sampling
Time
= A target individual or group is first established then the researcher records their behaviour in a. fixed time frame (e.g. every 60 seconds)
+Effective in
reducing the number of observations
that have to be made
-May be
unrepresentativ
e of the observation as a whole as it only looks at a certain part of time
Sample
= A group of people who take part in a research investigation
The sample is drawn from a target population and should be representative of that population
The generalisation of findings is possible but vast majority of samples contain some degree of bias
Population
= A group of people who are the focus of the researcher's interest, from which a smaller sample is drawn
Variables
Operationalisation
= Clearly defining variables in terms of how they can be measured - ensure they can be easily tested
Standardisation
= Using exactly the same formalised procedures and instructions for all ppts in a research study
Randomisation
= Use of chance methods to control for the effects of bias when designing materials and decoding the order of experimental conditions e.g. computer, roll a dice, hat
Random allocation
= Attempt to control for ppt variables in an independent groups design which ensures that each ppt has the same chance of being in one condition as any other
Counterbalancing
= An attempt to control for the effects of order in a repeated measures design - half ppts experience conditions in one order and the other half in the opposite order
Extraneous
= Any variables which are not an independent variable that may affect the dependent variable if its not controlled
Confounding
= Varies with the IV so we can't tell if any change in the DV is due to the IV or the confounding variable
IV
= Manipulated by the researcher and has a direct effect on the DV
DV
= Variable that is measured
Demand characteristics
= Any type of EV that occurs if the ppts work out the aims of the research study, ppts may then change their behaviour
Investigator effects
= Any effect of the investigators behaviour on the research outcome - design of study, selection and interaction with ppts
Hypotheses
Null hypothesis
= These predict that no difference will be found in the results between the conditions
Experimental
= Predict that there will be a significant difference in the results between the two conditions
Aim
= A general statement of what the researcher intends to investigate - purpose of the study
Non-directional
= They state a difference will be found between the conditions of the IV but does not state the direction of a difference or relationship
Directional
= They state the specific direction the researcher expects the results to move in
Hypothesis
= A clear precise testable statement about the prediction of results, that can be verified or disproved by investigation
Reliability
Test-retest
= The same experimenter completes the same test on two separate occasions and if it is reliable the scores should be similar
A correlation co-efficient measures the strength of the relationship (+0.8 or higher is good reliability)
Reliability
= Refers to the consistency of the findings
Inter-observer
= Extent to which there is an agreement between two or more observers involved in observations of behaviour
Measured by correlating the observations of two or more observers (total number of agreements/total number of observations > +0.8)
Should train observers together before main study, use clearly defined and objective categories of behaviour and conduct pilot studies to refine coding system
How to improve reliability:
Questionnaires
- use test-retest methods to check consistency and replace open questions with closed fixed choice questions to reduce ambiguity
Interviews
- Use same interviewer each time or train multiple interviewers in a standardised structure, structured
Experiments
- Standardise the procedure and instructions so all ppts are treated identically and control extraneous variables
Observations
- Clearly define behavioural categories so observers know exactly what to record and use multiple observers and check inter-observer reliability
Validity
Temporal
= The extent to which findings from a research study can be generalised to other historical times and eras
Face
= Assess whether a test measures what it set out to measure
Ecological
= Findings from a study can be generalised to other settings and situations (form of external)
Concurrent
= The extent to which a psychological measure relates to an existing similar measure
How to improve validity:
Experimental research
- Use control groups to check changes in the DV caused b yIV, standardise procedures, use single/double blind designs to stop researcher or ppt bias
Questionnaires
- No leading questions, include lie scale to check for social desirability bias, assure anonymity so ppts answer honestly
Observations
- Make sure behavioural categories are clear, use covert observations so people act naturally
Qualitative methods
- use open-ended data to explore real experiences, check interpretative validity by ensuring conclusions reflect ppt meanings, use triangulation - gather data from several sources to cross-back findings
BPS
= British Psychological Society are a professional body for psychologists who have created a set of ethical guidelines which researchers must follow and ensure ppts are treated with respect and consideration
Psychology a science?
+Theories are based on empirical evidence which can produce unexpected results showing it is more than 'common sense'
+Gone through paradigm shifts
+Theories have led to treatments for abnormal behaviours which have helped people
-Methods are prone to bias - demand characteristics from ppts
-May not be possible to produce universal laws as research studies will be drawn from samples which may not apply to all
-Some theories are not directly testable so can't be objectively measured
-Number of competing explanations and theories for human behaviour - not one accepted paradigm
Designs
Matched pairs
= Pairs of ppts are matched on some variables that may affect the DV. One member of the par is assigned to condition A and the other to condition B
+Ppts only take part in one condition so
order effects
and demand characteristics are less of a problem
-Ppts an
never be matched exactly
- can be important differences between even twins that may affect the DV
-Matching is
time-consuming
and expensive particularly if a pre-test is required so less economical
Independent groups
= Ppts allocated to different groups where each group represents one experimental condition
+
Order effects
are not a problem and are less likely to guess the aims
-The ppts are not the same so there may be
ppt variables
- the differences may be a confounding variable reducing the validity (use random allocation to deal with it)
-
Less economical
as each ppt contributes to one result - 2x as many needed to produce equivalent data to repeated measures - more time and money
Repeated measures
= All ppts take part in all conditions of the experiment
+Ppt variables are
controlled
(higher validity) and fewer ppts needed (less time and money)
-Each ppt has to do at least two tasks and the order may be significant (order effects)
-
Order effects
arise because repeating two tasks could create boredom/fatigue which may cause deterioration in performance on second task/performance may increase and improve through practice
-More likely to figure out the aim of the study -
demand characteristics
Features of science
Hypothesis testing
= Process of making predictions from a theory and testing them scientifically to support or refute the theory
If results support hypothesis it is strengthened, if results refute it the theory must be revised (deduction)
Replicability
= Findings are tested repeatedly to identify reliability and consistent results should be found when we repeat study with diff ppts, diff settings and diff times
Requires researchers to report procedures precisely so others can verify their work
Increases generalisation and reliability of findings
Theory construction
= Process of developing general laws or principles that explain behaviours or events - theories simplify and organise observations and must lead to testable predictions (hypothesis)
Objectivity
= When personal bias is minimised so it doesn't distort the research process - not let own view affect results
Empirical method
= Scientific approaches are based on observable evidence - data collected through measurable evidence to draw conclusions and propose theories
Falsifiability
= A theory cannot be considered scientific unless it admits the possibility of being proved false (Karl Popper 1934)
Good science constantly tests theories trying to falsify them - theories that survive many falsification attempts are stronger
Paradigm
= Set of shared assumptions and an accepted way of thinking within a subject
Paradigm shift
= A major change in the dominant scientific theory of framework - contradictory evidence builds up against current paradigm creating a new way of thinking
Ethical issues
Protection from harm
= The researcher should avoid risks greater than those experienced in everyday life and should stop the study if any harm is suspected and should have the right to withdraw
Privacy and confidentiality
= Ppts have the right to control information about themselves and should label any ppts as anonymous
Researchers should protect any personal details held and in case studies can use initials when describing the individual
Should should be reminded during briefing and debriefing that their data is protected and won't be shared
Informed consent
= When ppts are able to make an informed judgement about whether to take part - causes them to guess the aims of the study and change their behaviour
Can gain consent or ask them to agree to participate but may invalidate the purpose of the study and it is not guaranteed that the ppts would understand
Deception
= Should only be used when approved by an ethics committee as it involves deliberately misleading or withholding info
All ppts should be informed they have the right to withdraw at the beginning whenever they want to
Interviews and Questionnaires
Open questions
= Questions where there is no fixed choice of response and they can answer in any way
Closed questions
= Questions where there is a fixed choice of responses determined by the question setter
Closed questions divide into:
Likert scale
- choose agreement on a scale from strongly agree to strongly disagree
Rating scales
- Identify a value that represents a strength of a feeling about a topic
Fixed-choice option
- Includes a list of options to choose from
Evaluation of closed:
+Economical - produces large amounts of data for low cost
+Can easily be turned into quantitative data
+Questions are standardised so can be replicated
-Lacks detail - responses are fixed
Evaluation of open:
+Qualitative data - can elaborate on answers
-Time consuming - takes longer to complete questions
-Takes longer to analyse qualitative data as they have to read them and put them into categories
-Not suitable for less educated as they require writing skills
Important for questionnaires:
Aims, Length, Pilot study, Question order, Terminology, Presentation, Ethical issues
How to write good questions:
Don't overuse jargon (specialist terminology) - makes it complex for ppt
Do not use leading questions or emotive language that may sway the ppts answer
Don't use double-barrelled questions - two questions in one - ppt may not respond to both
How to design an interview:
Interview schedule and should be standardised to reduce the contaminating effect of interviewer bias
Tend to involve an interviewer and one ppt but you can have group interviews
Should be in a quiet room, away from people so they are more likely to open up
Begin with neutral questions to make them feel relaxed and comfortable and told their answers are treated in confidence
Scientific report
Method
= Discription of what researchers did - design, sample, materials, procedure, ethics
Results
= Description of what the researchers found, including descriptive and inferential statistics, raw data collected and calculations
Discussion
= A consideration of what the results of a research study tell us in terms of psychological theory - summarise findings in verbal form, discuss limitations and how they are addressed in a future study
Referencing
= List of sources that are referred to or quoted in the article (journal articles, books or websites)
Correct order: Surname, date, title, city, publisher
Abstract
= The key details of a research project (aims, hypotheses, method, results, conclusions) to identify the investigations worthy of examination
Introduction
= A look at past research on a similar topic - begin broadly and gradually become more specific until aims and hypotheses presented
Peer review
Aims of peer review:
To allocate research funding - peer evaluation decides whether or not to award funding for a research project
To validate the quality and relevance of research - all elements of research are assessed for quality and accuracy
To suggest amendments or improvements - reviewers may suggest minor revisions of the work or conclude it is inappropriate for publication
Peer review
= Assessment of scientific work by others who are specialists in the same field, to ensure any research intended for publication os of high qualiy
Evaluation:
Peer remains
anonymous
which may produce a more honest appraisal/some may use their anonymity as a way of criticising rival researchers as they are in direct competition for limited research funding
May want to
publish significant findings
to increase credibility and circulation of publication - research that doesn't meet criteria may be ignored which creates a false impression of the current state of psychology
May
suppress opposition to mainstream theories
- findings that correlate with current opinion are more likely to be passed than new innovative research that challenges established order - may slow down rate of change within a specific scientific discipline
Implications on the economy
Attachment research:
Bowlby wrote at a time when childcare was seen as a mother's responsibility while father was the provider
More recent research suggests father has a valuable role in upbringing and both parents are equally capable of providing emotional support for healthy development
May promote more flexible working arrangements within the family and parents hare childcare responsibilities
Modern parents are better equipped to maximise their income and contribute more effectively to economy
Mental disorders research:
Absence from work costs the economy £15 billion a year - third are due to mental health disorders
Patients can have their condition diagnosed quickly and gain swift access to treatment - drugs like SSRIs
Antianxiety drugs for stress, referrals for psychotherapies such as systematic desensitisation
In many cases people can manage their condition effectively and return to work - economic benefit of research into disorders such as depression is considerable
Procedures
Single-blind
= Any info that might create expectations is revealed at the end of the study to control confounding effects of demand characteristics
Double-blind
= Neither the ppts or researcher is aware of the aims of the investigation so expectations cannot influence behaviour
Pilot study
= A small-scale version of an investigation that takes place before the real investigation is conducted
It allows the researcher to identify any potential issues and to modify the design or procedure, saving time and money in the long run
Behavioural categories
= Target behaviour is broken into components that are observable and measurable
Must not require interpretation, all forms of target behaviour are included in the checklist, categories should be exclusive
Control group
= In drug trials the group that takes the real drug is the experimental group while the one with the placebo is the control
If the change in behaviour of the experimental group is significantly greater than the control the researcher can conclude the cause of this effect was the IV