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Ch. 51: Animal Behavior, Ch. 52: Intro to Ecology & the Biosphere -…

- - - - Niko observed male stickleback fish in the lab responding aggressively to a passing red truck.
        
        Proximate cause of male attack behavior is the red underside of a male intruder.
        
        Fixed action pattern- sequence of unlearned acts directly linked to an external cue called a sign stimulus.
        -In sticklebacks- attack is fixed action pattern in response to the sign stimulus, the red object.
        
        Fixed action pattern behaviors are unchangeable and completed once initiated.
  - - - Migration
        
        Migration- regular, long-distance change in location guided by environmental cues.
        
        Environmental stimuli not only trigger behaviors but also provide cues that animals use to carry out those behaviors.
        
        Animals can orient themselves through unfamiliar territory using their position relative to
        -Sun
        -North star
        -Earth's magnetic field
      - Migration and reproduction are linked to changing seasons.
        
        Correlate with food availability.
        
        Periods of daylight and dark are common seasonal cues (longer days in summer).
- - - - Pheromones- chemical substance emitted through odors or tastes.
        Ex. Injured minnows emit alarm substance to induce fright response to other minnows in area.
        
        Can be very effective at low [ ].
- - - - Social learning- learn by observing and interpreting behaviors and their consequences.
        Ex. Chimps crack nuts by watching other chimps.
        Culture- system of info transfer through social learning or teaching. Influences behavior of individuals in a population.
        -Can alter behavioral phenotypes and influence fitness of individuals.
- - - - Mating system refers to length and number of relationships between males and females.
        
        Monogamous- mates form a relationship of some duration. One male mates with one female.
        -Males and females look very similar to each other.
        Polygamous- individual of one sex mates with many individuals of the other sex.
        -Usually sexually dimorphic: Males and females differ in appearance.
        
        Polygyny- one male mates with many females.
        -Males are more showy and larger than females.
        
        Polyandry- one female mates with many males.
        -Females are often more ornamented and larger than males.
    - - Males maximize reproductive success by either helping one mate care for offspring (monogamy) or seeking more mates (polygyny).
        
        In monogamy, some offspring may be fathered by a male other than the usual mate.
        
        In internal fertilization of egg, many males ensure paternal certainty by guarding females, removing other sperm from female, or produce large ejaculations to overpopulate the other sperm.
        
        Certainty of paternity is higher when egg laying and mating occur together in external fertilization.
    - - Sexual dimorphism results from sexual selection.
        
        Sexual selection- form of natural selection in which differences in reproductive success result from differences in mating success.
        
        Intersexual selection- members of one sex choose mates based on certain traits.
        
        Intrasexual selection- competition between members of the same sex for mates.
      - Mate Choice by Females
        
        Type of intersexual selection.
        
        Drive sexual selection in males by choosing mates with specific behaviors or anatomical features.
        Ex. F stalk-eyed flies more likely to mate with males that have relatively long eyestalks.
        
        Ornamentation correlate in general with health and vitality.
        
        Males may compete to attract female attention.
        
        Imprinting has been experimentally demonstrated to influence mate choice.
        Ex. Zebra finches
        
        Females raised by ornamented males showed preference for ornamented males as mates.
        -Females raised by males w/o ornamentation showed no mate preference.
      - Mate-choice Copying
        
        Mate-choice copying- behavior which individuals copy the mate choice of others.
        Ex. Female guppies
        -Will choose bright orange-colored males if no other females are present.
        -When female model simulates courtship with less orange male, females choose that male instead.
        
        This behavior increases the attractiveness of the offspring to opposite sex.
      - Male Competition
        
        Intrasexual selection that reduces variation among males.
        
        Involved agnostic behavior- ritualized contest determining access to resources (mates).
        
        Agnostic Behavior
    - - Game theory- evaluates alternative strategies in situations where the outcome depends on the strategies of all individuals involved.
        
        Fitness of a behavioral phenotype depends on the other behavioral phenotypes in the population.
        
        Applying game theory to mating behavior:
        Ex. Side-blotched lizard has different colored throats that effect their strategy.
        -Each strategy outcompetes one and is outcompeted by the other.
        -Success of each male lizard type depends on the relative abundance of the other types.
        -Frequency-dependent selection maintains all three types.
- - - - Intensity of sunlight is affected by angle of sun impact.
        
        Sunlight most direct and intense in tropics (equator).
    - - Air circulation and precipitation patterns play major roles in climate patterns.
        
        Intense sunlight causes water to evaporate in the tropics- warm, wet air masses rise and flow from tropics toward poles.
        
        Air masses release water and cause high precipitation.
        
        Dry descending air masses create arid climates. (Near 30 degrees north and south).
        
        Aire masses rise again and release precipitation. (Near 60 degrees north and south).
        
        Cold dry air flows to poles, absorbs moisture and creates dry climate at polar regions.
      - The speed of Earth's rotation is faster near the equator that causes the deflection of winds from the vertical path.
        
        Air flowing close to Earth's surface creates predictable global wind patterns.
        
        Cooling winds blow from east to west in tropics.
        
        Westerlies blow from west to east in temperature zones.
  - - - Bodies of Water
        
        Ocean currents influence the climate of nearby terrestrial environments by heating or cooling overlying air masses that pass over land.
        
        Currents flowing toward the equator carry cold water from poles.
        
        Currents flowing away from equator carry warm water toward the poles.
        
        Large bodies of water moderate the climate due to the high specific heat of water.
      - Mountains
        
        Mountains influence air flow over land and affect climate in surrounding areas.
        
        Warm moist are cools as it rises up a mountains and releases moisture on the windward side.
        
        Cool dry air absorbs moisture as it descends on the leeward side to create a "rain shadow".
        
        Deserts are found in the rain shadows of mountains.
        
        Mountains also affect amount of sunlight reaching an area.
        
        Northern hemisphere- south-facing slopes are warmer and drier because they receive more sunlight than north-facing slopes.
      - Vegetation & Climate
        
        Terrestrial organisms (forests) can alter climate at local and regional scales.
        
        Darker color of forests cause them to absorb more solar energy than deserts or grasslands and cause a warming effect.
        
        Offset by transpiration- causes evaporative cooling to reduce surface temperatures and increase precipitation.
        (Sweating in humans)
        
        Climate becomes hotter and drier in areas where humans have done deforestation.
    - - Microclimate- very fine, localized patterns in climate.
        Ex. Forest trees moderate the microclimate below them.
        
        Abiotic- nonliving factors such as temperature, light, water, and nutrients that influence environments.
        
        Biotic- living factors- other organisms that are part of the environment- influence distribution and abundance of life on Earth.
- - - - Terrestrial biomes named for major physical or climatic features and vegetation.
        
        Ecotone- area of intergradation of terrestrial biomes.
        -May be wide or narrow.
        
        Vertical layering or vegetation allows diverse habitats.
        
        Canopy- upper vertical layer in forest.
        
        Forest can also have low tree layer, shrubs and herbaceous plant, forest floor and root layer.
        
        Similar characteristics can arise in distant biomes through convergent evolution.
        Ex. cacti in N & S America similar to euphorbs in African deserts but arise from different lineages.
    - - Disturbance- event such as storm, fire or human activity that changes a community.
    - - Tropical Forest
        
        Near equator and sub equator regions.
        
        Tropical rain forests- rainfall is relatively constant. Broadleaf evergreens.
        
        Tropical dry forests- precipitations is seasonal with a long dry season. Deciduous trees.
        
        High temp. year round
        
        Little vegetation
        
        Animal diversity higher than other terrestrial biomes.
        
        Vertically layered- high competition for light.
        
        Deforestation is major human impact.
      - Desert
        
        Desert- occur near 30 degree north and south of equator and interior of continents.
        
        Low precipitation
        
        Temp. varies seasonally/daily.
        
        Plants are adapted for heat and water storage with reduced leaf surface area.
        
        Plants have defenses: spines and toxins prevent feeding by animals.
        
        Many animals are nocturnal and conserve water.
        
        Urbanization and irrigated culture are major human impacts.
      - Savanna
        
        Equator and sub equator regions.
        
        Seasonal precipitation with long dry seasons.
        
        Savanna- warm year-round, but more seasonally variation than tropical forests.
        
        Grasses and forbs fire-adapted and tolerate seasonal drought.
        
        Large herbivores and insects common.
        
        Cattle ranching and overhunting major human impact.
      - Chaparral
        
        Chaparral- midlatitude coastal regions.
        
        Seasonal precipitation with rainy winters and dry summers.
        
        Summer is hot; fall, winter and spring are cool.
        
        Vegetation: shrubs, small trees, grasses, herbs. Adapted to fire and drought.
        
        Amphibians, birds, reptiles, insects, and small mammals
        
        Agriculture and urbanization major human impacts.
      - Temperate Grassland
        
        Temperate grasslands- found on many continents.
        
        Dry winters and wet summers.
        
        Periodic drought common.
        
        Cold winters and hot summers.
        
        Grasses and forbs adapted to droughts and fire.
        
        Bison, wild horses, prairie dogs.
        
        Most grassland in N America and Eurasia converted to agricultural land.
        
        Drier grasslands become desert due to cattle grazing.
      - Northern Coniferous Forest
        
        Northern coniferous forest (taiga)- northern N America and Eurasia.
        
        Largest terrestrial biome on Earth.
        
        Periodic drought common.
        
        Coastal coniferous forests are temperate rain forests that can receive large amounts of precipitation.
        
        Winters are cold, summers are hot.
        
        Vegetation: evergreen conifers like pine, spruce, fir, hemlock.
        
        Conical shape- reduce branch breakage due to snow accumulation.
        
        Needle leaves reduce water loss.
        
        Migratory and resident birds.
        
        Mosse, brown bears, Siberian tigers.
        
        Insect outbreaks kill vast areas of forest.
        
        Logging is a major human impact.
      - Temperate Broadleaf Forest
        
        Primarily in Northern hemisphere.
        
        Chile, South Africa, Australia, and New Zealand.
        
        Significant precipitation during all seasons as rain or snow.
        
        Winter reach freezing, summers are hot and humid.
        
        Temperate broadleaf forest- vertical layers like closed canopy, understory trees, shrub layer, and herb layer.
        
        Deciduous trees in N Hemisphere and evergreen eucalyptus in Australia.
        
        Mammals, birds, insects.
        
        Mammals hibernate during winter, birds migrate.
        
        Settlement by humans major impact.
      - Tundra
        
        Tundra- Arctic tundra; Alpine tundra exists on mountaintops at all latitudes.
        
        Higher precipitation in alpine tundra.
        
        Very cold winters, summers cool.
        
        Vegetation: mosses, grasses, forbs, dwarf shrubs and trees, lichens.
        
        Musk oxen, caribou, reindeer, bears, wolves, and foxes.
        
        Migratory birds nest in summer.
        
        Settlement, oil and mineral extraction major human impacts.
  - - - Aquatic biomes defined by:
        -Light penetration
        -Temperature
        -Depth
        -Three zones:
        Photic zone- upper zone with light penetration.
        Aphotic zone- lower zone with little light penetration.
        Pelagic zone- middle zone made up by photic and aphotic zones.
        
        Thermocline- separates the warm upper layer from cold deeper layer in oceans and most lakes.
        
        Turnover- sends oxygenated water from the surface to the bottom and nutrient-rich water from the bottom of the surface.
      - Aphotic Zone
        
        Abyssal zone- located in aphotic zone in marine zonation.
        
        Benthic zone- make up the floor. Organic and inorganic sediment at bottom of all aquatic zones. (Ocean/lake floor)
        -Benthos- communities of organisms in the benthic zone.
        -Detritus- dead organic matter from surface forms food source for benthos.
      - Intertidal Zones
        
        Intertidal zone- closest to shore. High tide covers zone with water. Low tide, zone is exposed.
        
        Living things must adapt to changing conditions.
        
        Nutrient and O2 levels high.
        
        Substrates are rocky or sandy
        
        How bays or coastline are configured influence tides and waves.
        
        Sandy intertidal zones- no plants or algae unless protected by bays or lagoons. Animals bury themselves in sand to protect from waves.
        
        Rocky intertidal zones- algae and seagrass. Animals attach to hard substrate.
        
        Sponges, sea anemones, echinoderms, and small fish.
      - Oceanic Pelagic Zone
        
        Oceanic pelagic zone- farthest, deepest ocean.
        
        Covers 70% Earth.
        
        Constant mix of wind-driven oceanic currents.
        
        O2 levels high
        
        Nutrient levels lower that coastal waters.
        
        Temperate oceans- seasonal turnover renews nutrients in photic zone.
        
        Phytoplankton and zooplankton
        
        Phytoplankton account for 50% of photosynthesis.
        
        Fish, squid, turtles, marine mammals
        
        Pollution, overfishing, ocean acidification, global warming major impacts.
        
        Hydrothermal Vents- fuel source for deep-sea ocean life.
        
        Chemoautotrophic prokaryotes food producers surrounding hydrothermal vents.
        
        Overfishing and dumping of waste have depleted fish populations.
      - Neritic Zone
        
        Over the continental shelf.
        
        Water is shallow and many organisms live in this zone.
        
        Neritic benthic communities include invertebrates and fishes.
        
        Have hydrothermal vents.
    - - Lakes
        
        Vary in size
        
        Temperate lakes have seasonal thermocline.
        
        Tropical lowland lakes have year-round thermocline.
        
        Salt, O2, and nutrient [ ] vary among lakes between seasons.
        
        Oligotrophic lakes
        -Nutrient-poor
        -O2 rich
        -Low organic contents in sediments.
        
        Less surface area vs. depth
        
        Eutrophic lakes
        -Nutrient-rich
        -High organic contents in sediments.
        -O2 periodically depleted deeper layers- high rates of decomposition.
        
        Lake Zones
        
        Littoral zone- close to shore. Shallow and well-lit.
        
        Limnetic zone- water is deep. Phytoplankton inhabit.
        -Zooplankton- heterotrophs that gaze on phytoplankton.
        
        Human-induced nutrient enrichment leads to algae "blooms", oxygen depletion and kills fish.
      - Wetlands
        
        Wetlands- inundated by water some of the time.
        
        Support plants adapted to water-saturated soil.
        
        Rapid organic production and decomposition deplete dissolved oxygen.
        
        Develop in shallow basins, flooded river banks, or coasts of large lakes and seas.
        
        Most productive biomes.
        
        Lillies, cattails, sedges, black spruce, bald cypress.
        
        Diverse invertebrates and birds, otters, frogs, alligators.
        
        Purify water and reduce flooding.
        
        Draining and filling by humans cause major impacts.
      - Streams & Rivers
        
        Current is most prominent feature,
        
        Downstream rivers- warm and turbid. Wide with silty bottoms.
        
        Headwater streams- cold, clear, swift, and turbulent. Narrow and rocky bottoms. Rich in phytoplankton or rooter aquatic plants.
        
        Salt and nutrient increases from headwaters to the mouth.
        
        O2 rich depleted downstream.
        
        Damning and flooding effect functioning of streams and river ecosystems.
      - Estuaries
        
        Estuary- transition zone between river and the sea.
        
        Nutrient rich and productive.
        
        Salinity varies from nearly freshwater to seawater.
        
        Complex network of tidal channels, islands, natural levees, and mudflats.
        
        Marsh grasses, algae are major producers.
        
        Invertebrates, fish, waterfowl, and marine mammals.
        
        Filling, dredging, and pollution have major impacts.
      - Coral Reefs
        
        Coral reefs- formed from calcium carbonate skeletons of corals.
        
        Shallow reef-building corals live in photic zone in warm clear water.
        
        Deep-sea corals live at deep depths.
        
        Require high O2 [ ] and solid substrate for attachment.
        
        Starts as fringing reef--> barrier reef--> coral atoll.
        
        Form mutualistic relationship with algae that provide organic materials.
        
        Invertebrates and fish are diverse.
        Overfishing, global warming, pollution, and aquaculture impact coral reefs.