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education - Coggle Diagram
education
social class
- THE CENTRE OF LONGITUDINAL STUDIES: by the age of three, children from disadvantage backgrounds were already one year behind those from more priviledged homes + the gap widens with age
external factors
1. cultural deprivation
cultural equipment: the basic values, attitudes + skills that are needed for educational success. learnt through primary socialisation (family)
- e.g. language, self-discipline + reasoning skills
BERNSTEIN: spoken language
- language used at home influences a child's intellectual development
- more complex language helps children consolidate their understanding whereas basic language fails to do this
- MC families more likely to use complex language (elaborated code)
- wider vocab
- more complex, longer sentences
- analytical
- WC families more likely to use basic language (restricted code)
- grammatical errors
- simple, short sentences
- description based
TROYNA & WILLIAMS 1986: the problem is not the child's language but the school's attitude towards it. teachers have a 'speech hierarchy' where they label MC speech highest, followed by WC speech + finally black speech
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DOUGLAS: parents' education
- MC parents more likely to have achieved better in education + have higher qualifications
- parenting style
- MC parents more likely to emphasise discipline + high expectations
- parents' educational behaviours
- MC parents more likely to read to their children, help with homework + attend events such as parents' evenings
- more income
- MC parents earn more due to their education + higher income is correlated to higher educational achievement for students
- use of income
- MC parents more likely to spend their income in ways that benefit their child's education
BLACKSTONE & MORTIMORE: reject the view that WC parents not interested in their children's education. WC parents may attend fewer parents' evenings, not because of lack of interest, but because they work longer or less regular hours or are available but intimidated by the school's MC atmosphere. WC parents likely want to help their children progress but may lack the knowledge and education to do so.
SUGARMAN: taking part in WC subculture
- WC students form subcultures outside of school which contain 4 main factors that contribute to their underachievement:
- fatalism
- a belief in fate
- there is nothing they can do to change their status
- contrasts with MC attitudes that you can improve your situation by your own efforts
- collectivism
- contrasts with MC view that being part of a group should not hold you back by any loyalties to a group
- immediate gratification
- seeking pleasure now rather than working hard now so it pays off in future
- MC students think opposite
- present time orientation
- seeing present as more important than future
- don't set long term goals
if WC students do believe that they cannot improve, then society has conditioned them to believe this
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ignores importance of wealth + income on success at school. merely focus on language, parents' income + whether you are part of a subculture
ignores impact of internal factors within the school that may or may not lead to educational success
KEDDIE: cultural deprivation is a myth. a victim-blaming explanation. a child cannot be deprived of its own culture- culturally different, not culturally deprived. WC students fail at school because they are put at a disadvantage by an education system that is dominated by MC values. schools should challenge teachers' anti-working-class prejudices.
2. material deprivation
1. poor diet/health
- HOWARD: cheaper foods less nutritious so more likely to get ill + be tired. illnesses= missed schools days= less education
- WILKINSON: among 10 year olds, the lower the social class, the higher the rate of hyperactivity, anxiety + conduct disorders
- FLAHERTY: there is a stigma attached to those on FSM which prevents some from taking up the entitlements
2. poor housing
- living in close proximity means they are more likely to become ill
- over-crowded= stress + distraction from school work
- for young children, development can be impaired through lack of space for safe play + exploration (especially if moving frequently- BnB's)
- lack of space for study
- disturbed sleep
- cold + damp housing cause ill health
3. lower income and lack of financial support in a family
- TANNER: points to cost of transport, books, computers etc can place a heavy burden on WC families + cause stress for WC students
- SMITH & NOBEL: WC students are at a disadvantage as they cannot afford private tuition or schools
- RIDGE: may have to get a part-time job to help support their family which will leave less time for/distract from school work
- not having educational toys can impact cognitive development
- hidden cost of school (estimated £1500 per year)
- immediate gratification: WC students working for money instead of studying for a higher paying job
4. lack of funding for schools
- 90% schools rated 'required improvement' in WC areas
- instability in educational provision
compensatory education
- resources that help to make up for any material deprivation
- e.g. tv shows that help to educate (sesame street), websites (bbc bitesize), pp support (textbooks)
OPERATION HEAD START
- US, 1960's
- aims to tackle cultural deprivation by providing extra resources to schools + communities
- intervene early in the socialisation process
- improves parenting skills, sets up nursery classes + home visits by educational psychologists
- 'planned enrichment'
SURE START
- community centres
- major element in the new labur government's policies to tackle poverty
- 2010: 3500 local sure start children's centres
- provides integrated education, care, family support, health services + support with parental employment
- aim to work with parents to promote the development of babies + young children- break the cycle of disadvantage
DOUGLAS: studied impact of material deprivation. the impact is cumulative- likely to experience all the effects as they are linked.
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even with financial equality, MC would use cultural capital to make education work for them
3. cultural capital deprivation
- BOURDIEU: WC students underachieve in school as they lack cultural capital, educational capital + economic capital
- MC habitus (norms, values, attitudes of particular social group)
educational capital
- if you have the cultural capital of the MC this will convert into educational capital, meaning you will do well in exams + succeed at school
- links to bernstein (argues MC students have better speech codes [cultural capital] + understanding, leading them to do well in school
cultural capital
- the advantage that MC children have in education
- those who come from better-off middle + upper class backgrounds have more access to the culture of the dominant class
- knowledge, attitudes, values + language of the MC
- success at school is based on the culture of the MC so MC students more likely to feel comfortable at school + do better
WC children more likely to...
- fail exams
- be put in lower sets
- drop out of education
- this is due to lack of cultural capital of MC as well as lacking the economic + educational capital that enables them to succeed
economic capital
- if you do well in school + get educational capital, this will mean you are more likely to get a better paid job, meaning you have economic capital in future
- economic capital will mean you are more likely to be able to afford a MC lifestyle + develop cultural capital
- when you have children this may mean that they are then brought up with MC cultural capital + the cycle starts again
how does economic capital, educational capital + cultural capital interact?
- if a child does not possess all of these types of capital there will be a culture clash
- where the values of the students' home + upbringing are completely at odds with those of the educational system + MC society
- they interlink
internal factors
- 5 major internal factors that impact social class achievement:
- teacher labelling
- student labelling
- setting + streaming
- anti + pro school subcultures
- educational policies
1. teacher labelling
- WC students negatively labelled
- MC students positively labelled
- leads to self-fulfilling prophecy
- BECKER: interviewed high school teachers- judged pupils on the model of the 'ideal pupil'
- RIST: studied american kinder gardens + found that teacher labelling happens at young age- used info about student's background to place them in seating plans in different areas of the rooms. 'tigers' seated near front + had encouragement (MC). 'cardinals' + 'clowns' given lower level books + placed near back as not worth effect (WC)- self-fulfilling prophecy
- ROSENTHAL & JACOBSON: gave elementary school children IQ test + told teachers which were going to be average + which were 'bloomers' (20% who showed potential for intellectual growth). teachers didn't expect much from average children + gave attention to bloomers, giving them a nicer environment. however, students were selected randomly. after 8 months they retested children's intelligence. bloomers' IQ scores had risen higher than average students (bloomers 4 IQ points overall)- shows self-fulfilling prophecy
too deterministic- assumes that people take on their label + have no free will or choice over their label. some people may use their label to push them to do better
2. student labelling
- WC negatively labelled by MC students, so they feel school is not for them + so underperform
- HOLLINGWORTH & WILLIAMS 2009: found that in both schools MC students had negative labels for WC students. WC students were aware of the negative labels attached to them to feel judged + demotivated at school often forming an anti-school subculture
too deterministic- assumes that people take on their label + have no free will or choice over their label. some people may use their label to push them to do better
3. setting + streaming
- due to negative labelling by teachers, WC students tend to be put in lower sets which leads to their underachievement
- GILLBORN & YOUDELL 2001: interactionist study in two London schools. found that teachers decided a student's set based on stereotypical understandings of pupil's ability. found that teachers had an approach called the 'educational triage
WOOD: argued that there are many subcultures in school that range from pro to anti. there are also many instances of WC pupils belonging to pro-subcultures
4. anti + pro school subcultures
- due to receiving a negative or positive label in school, WC students form anti school subculture + MC students a pro school subculture
- ARCHER: researched WC pupils. created own anti school class identity by wearing certain branded clothing. as school is based on the cultural capital of the MC, WC pupils would create an anti school subculture + try and create status in other ways ('nike identities').
- EVANS: researched WC pupils + found they created an anti-school subculture where they self-exclude- will not try + do well at school or go to university as they say A-levels is 'not for the likes of them'.
- LACEY & HARGEAVES: subcultures in schools form because of: 1. differentiation (teachers place students into sets based on how hard they work + the labels they attach to students). the effect of this is 2. polarisation (pupils become divided into two separate groups; pro-school subculture (MC) + anti-school subculture (WC)).
archer's 'nike identities': even if they are rebelling against uniform rules that doesn't mean that they aren't trying academically
5. educational policies
- policies that have disadvantaged WC students
- marketisation policies
- BALL: schools who choose to market themselves + have a marketisation policy (meaning they compete like businesses) can disadvantage WC students as their parents do not have time to spends looking at lots of different schools + going to open days/evenings. 'parentocracy is a myth' for WC parents.
- policies that have advantaged WC students
- free school meals policies in schools
- pupil premium policies in schools: money that schools receive for each pupil from disadvantaged background to further support them
criticism of WC failure: more + more WC students are going to university which proves that WC students are not always underachieving + joining anti-school subcultures.
ethnicity
- highest educational achievers: chinese + indian pupils
- lowest educational achievers: gypsy + black caribbean
external factors
- cultural deprivation
- material deprivation
- racism in wider society
1. cultural deprivation
- underachievement of some ethnic groups is due to inadequate socialisation at home regarding 3 factors:
- intellectual + linguistic skills
- attitudes + values as part of upbringing
- family structure + parental support
intellectual + linguistic skills: BEREITER & ENGELMANN:
- consider that the language spoken by low income black american families does not prepare black students for success at school
- speak in ungrammatical way + are incapable of articulating + talking about abstract ideas
- ethnic minority groups who do not speak english as their first language at home will be held back educationally
2010: pupils with english as first language were only 3.2 points ahead of those w/o english- suggests that not having english as your first language does not lead to underachievement at school for some ethnic groups
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attitudes + values they are raised with:
- cultural deprivation theorists argue that black children are socialised into a culture that is fatalistic
- e.g. 'live for today' attitude so they do not try hard in school
SUGARMAN: found the same in WC white boys so it doesn't explain why black children specifically are underachieving
family structure + parental support:
- SCRUTON: students from ethnic minorities underachieve because they do not embrace mainstream british culture
black caribbean families:
- MURRAY: (new right): argues that high rates of one parent families + lack of positive role models in black families leads to underachievement of some ethnic minorities
- PRYCE: black caribbean families: argues that structure of black caribbean families leads to underachieving. BC families less resistant to racism + have low self-esteem + culturally weak due to the fact that when they were enslaved their culture was devastated. their language, culture, religion + family structures have been lost + are not as strong as those from asian cultures as asian cultures have no had their cultural heritage destroyed.
- SEWELL: black boys find it harder to overcome emotional challenges of adolescence. give in the anti-education peer pressure from black peers. black boys need to have greater expectations put on them to encourage them to do well- need 'tough love' approach from their families.
DRIVER: criticises murray. black caribbean families do produce good role models in some sense- provides girls with positive role models of strong, independent women.
LAWRENCE: criticises pryce: argues it is due to racism, not low self-esteem.
asian families:
- SEWELL: argues indian + chinese students do better in school as they benefit from an 'asian work ethic' that places a high value on education.
- PRYCE: argues asian families are more resistant to racism + their culture gives them a greater sense of self-worth so they will try to do better in school. this because their culture has not been destroyed in the past in the same way as black culture has been destroyed by slavery.
- LUPTON: argues that in asian families the authority structure is similar to that of school. in asian families respectful behaviour towards adults in the norm so students are more likely to behave better in school + succeed.
GILLBORN: criticises sewell's idea that black boys perform badly in school because of peer pressure from other black boys + a lack of family structure. says that it isn't peer pressure but institutional racism within the educational system.
white wc families:
MCCULLOCH: have low aspirations + more likely to underachieve. found that minority ethnic groups are more likely to aspire to go to university than their white counterparts.
KEDDIE: criticises all explanations that say certain ethnicities are culturally deprived + this is why they underachieve at school. argues it is victim-blaming explanation: culturally different, not deprived, schools are ethnocentric.
2. material deprivation
statistics:
- almost half of all ethnic minority (EM) children live in low-income households
- EM 2x more likely to be unemployed compared to whites
- EM 3x likely to be homeless
PALMER: ethnic minorities are disproportionately affected by material deprivation.
- e.g. pakistani + bangladeshi households are more likely to live in overcrowded and low-income housing compared to white households
THE SWANN REPORT (1985): clear link between lack of finances + low educational achievement among afro caribbean pupils
why are EM groups more likely to suffer from material deprivation?
- live in economically depressed areas with high unemployment + low wages
- cultural factors prevent women working
- lack of language skills + foreign qualifications
- asylum seekers not allowed to work
material deprivation does not explain all differences between ethnic minority groups, e.g. white + asian middle-class pupils do better than black middle-class pupils.
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coping strategies
SEWELL: argues that black boys respond to racism + labelling in several ways:
- the rebels: the most visible groups but minority of black pupils- conformed to racist stereotypes of 'black macho lad'
- the conformists: largest group who accept the norms + values of the school
- the retreatists: minority who were disconnected from both
- the innovators: create own culture (e.g. fuller's girls)
blames aftrican-caribbean boys for their own underachievement + blames black fathers for abandoning their children- this blame masks the real reason for these boys' underachievement (institutional racism)
MAC AN GHAILL (1990)
- studied 25 african caribbean + asian students studying a-levels in late 1980's- observed behaviour in classrooms + in the playground, as well as conducting interviews
- all of those interviewed spoke about racism in school, but different groups reported different amounts of racism
- different students responded to schooling in different ways- influenced by which ethnic group they came from
- black girls particular constructed 'survival strategies', supporting each other in work
- some students can overcome negative labelling + reject the stereotypes placed upon them
MIRZA
- discovered in her research that black students avoid certain teachers that they deem as racist
- when researching in schools, mirza concluded that there were three types of teachers:
- the colour-blind: believe pupils are equal but do not challenge racism
- the liberal chauvinist: believe black pupils are deprived + have low expectations
- the overt racism: believe black pupils are inferior
- the crusaders: actively anti-racist, although often their campaigns are misguided- more effort into anti-racist campaigning than into teaching
FULLER:
- found in her research on black girls that the girls were aware of teacher labelling based on their ethnicity but rather than letting it get to them they decided to be anti-school + teachers but pro-education
- therefore teacher labelling pushed them to do better
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gender
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external factors
- changing ambitions + rise in feminism
- changing families
- changing employment
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2. changing families
4 examples
- more women are now single parents
- more women are staying single + not getting into getting into relationships + marrying
- more people now get divorced
- abortion was legalised in 1960's + greater access to contraceptives has happened
more women are now single parents
- girls can see an independent woman + role model
- they can be self-reliant
more women are staying single + not getting into relationships + marrying
- girls can see that they don't need a man + that they can pursue a career instead/ as well as
more people now get divorced
- girls can see a strong female role model + see that they don't have to rely on men
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3. changing employment
- we have laws that state women can have the same opportunities as men, so this encourages girls at school to work just as hard
- e.g. equal pay act 1970 + sex discrimination act 1975
- women now breaking through the 'glass ceiling' to high level + managerial jobs
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even though the laws are there, they often don't have a lasting effect.
educational policies
impact of globalisation
globalisation: the increased interconnectedness between people + nation state. includes technological, economic + cultural interconnectedness
features
- technological development: new technologies have made it easier to connect over long distances. has created a time-space compression
- economic changes: economic activity now takes place on global scale in 24 hour system. growth of transnational companies + an electronic economy
- political changes: globalisation has undermined the power of the nation state. we now live in a borderless world (OHMAE)
- cultural changes: now live in a global culture created mass media + internet that has led to westernisation of world
- migration: people moving more freely within + between countries for economic + personal reasons
PISA tests: the programme for international students assessment is a worldwide study intended to evaluate educational systems by measuring 15-year-old school pupils' scholastic performance on maths, science + reading
only based on how students perform in numeracy, literacy + science
ALEXANDER: create moral panics + it is pointless comparing a country like hong kong + singapore to UK as those countries only have 350 schools compared to UK with 23,000
impact of globalisation on education
- increased competition for jobs meaning that schools have to change the curriculum to meet new needs (e.g. computer science)
- global ICT companies such as apple + google creating online resources + curriculums
- increased multiculturalism in schools + decline of ethnocentric curriculum
- increased competition between schools + unis for students
- global rankings used to compare + contrast systems + raise standards (international comparisons)
- increased risk of safeguarding issues for schools (e.g. cyber bullying, prevent)
- further marketisation + privatisation of british style education to other areas of the world- worth around £18 billion to UK economy each year
- british textbook companies now export + make resources for education systems across world
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views on impact of globalisation on education
- HYPER GLOBALIST
- greater access to information creating higher educational achievement
- MARXIST
- globalisation only provides more educational opportunities to wealthy
- SPRING: global corporations are setting the educational agenda
- creating digital divide
- disempowering of teachers
- NEO-LIBERAL
- globalisation allows for private schools + universities to expand around the world
- globalisation means governments can play a reduced role in the education system + reduce funding
- NEW FORGIST
- globalisation has increased competition in the job market, meaning governments should increase education spending
- needs to be more focus on skills to be able to complete globally
examples of policies introduced by british government as response to comparing ourselves to other countries
- 2010: after success of free schools in sweden, we implemented them
- 2012: government decided to increase academic entry requirements of teachers which finland has done to ensure better standard of teaching
- 2014: master teachers: labour party announced they would train a band of teachers in all state schools who would be master teachers which singapore has done which ranks 3rd in PISA ratings
the impacts of...
admission policies
school admission code: all state funded schools cannot select by ability (apart from grammar schools) or not admit a child based on their background. ensures there is equality of opportunitiy
how do schools choose who to admit according to the school admissions code?
- priority to:
- children in care
- those who have siblings at school
- lose who live in the school catchment area
- those who are committed to their religious faith (if a faith school)
- those who are pupil premium
pupil premium has meant that students from WC backgrounds are more likely to now get in to better schools if they apply
TOUGH & BROOKS 2007: covert selection: schools use backdoor social selection to cherry-pick those pupils who they think are likely to be of higher ability + higher social class by discouraging WC parents from applying in first place
- e.g. by making school literature difficult to understand for parents with poor literacy, expensive schools uniforms + not promoting the school in poorer neighbourhoods
GREEN, ALLENS & JENKINS 2014: found free schools were socially selective, and cherry-picked bright + wealthy pupils by covert selection
open enrolment admissions policies: a parent can apply for their child at any state funded school in any area, even if not in catchment area + if school is under-subscribed then it must accept + admit that child.
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privatisation policies
who introduced privatisation policies + what are they?
the new right (margaret thatcher)
- when the state have less say in the way a school is run
BALL: two types of privatisation:
- endogenous: privatisation in education (schools can act like a business)
- started in 1988
- schools act like businesses
- marketisation strategies: allowed schools to endogenously privatise by acting more like a business
- e.g. academies + free schools
- examples: schools manage themselves + decide how to spend their money + on what by having a business manage rather than local council deciding how money is spent + schools can choose the teachers that they hire
- exogenous: privatisation of education (schools can buy + trade with other private businesses)
- education has become a way for private companies to make profit
- led to the 'colaisation of education' where companies have taken over
- examples: running the examination system (AQA, EDEXCEL), school services (staff training)
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selection policies
schools admission code: forbids discrimination in admitting pupils to schools on ground of ability + socio economic status. 2014: change made which said that schools will get more funding if they select WC students+ attract them to their school. act of positive discrimination selection.
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selective schooling: most schools try to attract the brightest, best behaved + best motivated students as they want the school to do well in league tables etc. can be covert or overt
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selection by aptitude: students selected based on potential to be good in certain subjects. specialist schools: allowed to select up to 10% of students who they think will be esp good at certain subjects. e.g. specialist schools selects by aptitude
selection by faith: selected on the basis of their commitment to certain religious beliefs. e.g. faith schools
social groups
policies that aimed to impact on gender differences + achievement
- improve boys performance: 'dads + sons' reading campaign to improve literacy, 'reading champions' to make reading competitive to involve boys
- improve girls performance: GIST- girls in science + tech, WISE- women in science education
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policies that aimed to have an impact on achievement of different ethnicities
- assimilation policies: encouraging ethnic minorities to fit in the mainstream culture
- multicultural education policies: promoting the culture + achievements of ethnic groups to raise self-esteems (e.g. black history month)
- social inclusion policies: trying to raise achievement of ethnic minorities + raising results in exams
assimilation policies: some minority grps who are at risk of underachieving (aftrican caribbeans) already speak english + the real cause of their under-achievement lies in poverty or racism
multicultural educational policies: STONE (1981): black pupils do not fail for lack of self-esteem, so MCE is misguided
social inclusion policies: GILLBORN: institutionally racist policies in relation to ethnocentric curriculum, assessment + streaming continue to disadvantage minority ethnic group pupils
policies that aimed to reduce inequality between social classes
- the butler act: the tripartite school system
- comprehensive school policy: school for children of all abilities
- FSM/PP
the butler act: separated children from a young age + WC were more likely to attend comprehensive schools leading to self-fulfilling prophecy
comprehensive school policy: still grammar + private schools available + WC children had less self-belief + knowledge to take the 11+
FSM/PP: OFSTEAD: found that often pupil premium not spent on those it is supposed to help. only 1/10 headteachers said it significantly changed how they supported pupils from disadvantaged backgrounds
the policies
1944: conservative government
- the butler act
- the tripartite system
- aim: to try + reduce inequality + be meritocratic
- at age 11 all children took 11+
- if pass: go to grammar school
- if fail: go to secondary modern school
- if have special skill: go to technical school
- influenced by functionalism (davis & moore: role allocation)
1965: labour government:
- tried to overcome class divide as tripartite creates class divisions
- all schools equal for all abilities
- comprehensive system: students went to school based on catchment area, 11+ being mandatory was abolished
- 1978: vocationalism: a range of courses rather than academia
- e.g. practical courses: plumbing, carpentry
- tries to meet needs of economy as many young people unemployed upon leaving school
- catchment area determined which school you went to
comprehensive schools: FUNCTIONALISTS: promote social solidarity by bringing children of different social class backgrounds together. meritocratic as gives students longer time to demonstrate their ability, unlike butler act which selects pupils at age 11
comprehensive schools: MARXISTS: not meritocratic as they reproduce class inequality through streaming + labelling. WC students denied equal opportunities at success. 'meritocracy is a myth'
1979-1990: the new right (thatcher's conservative gov)
- the education reform act
- marketisation: drives up standards through competition, act like businesses (e.g. league tables, ofstead inspections)
- introduced national testings (SATS) with results published
- privatisation: schools make decisions on how to spend money given to them
- greater parentocracy
- national curriculum
- further vocationalism: introduced NVQ's (similar to BTECs, designed to meet needs of economy), introduced 'youth training schemes' (train in certain vocational job or industry + be promised job at end)
- target setting: have a target grade to work towards
evaluation of marketisation policies
- BALL & WHITNEY: they reproduce class inequalities by creating inequalities between schools
- BARLETT: they encourage: 1) cream-skimming: good schools can be more selective + recruit high achieving MC pupils who gain an advantage, 2) silt-shifting: good schools can avoid taking less able pupils who are likely to get poor results + damage the school's league table position. unpopular schools lose funding + find it hard to match the teacher's skills/facilities of their more successful rivals
- INSTITUTE FOR PUBLIC RESEARCH: found that competition-orientated education system such as britain's, produced more segregation between children of different social backgrounds
1997-2010: new labour
- focus on disadvantaged students
- education action zones: underperforming areas in education were provided with added resources + funding
- aim higher programme: raise aspirations of group under-represented in higher education
- educational maintenance allowances: payments for pupils from LIC families to encourage them to stay in post-16 education
- sure start centres
- connexions: every secondary school had a connexions officer (career advisor)
- encouraged schools to apply for specialist status in areas of curriculum
- increased literacy + numeracy hours + reduced class sizes
- introduced pupil premium + free school meals register
2010-2015: coalition government (conservative + lib dem)
- pupil premium register + free school meals introduced to reduce inequality
- introduced coursework for a-levels
- uni fees raised to £9000
- academies: brought in to support struggling schools
- free schools: set up + run by parents, teachers, faith organisation rather than state, increase equality by giving parents power
BALL 2011
- promoting academies + free schools has led to:
- increased fragmentation: not all areas offer same educational experience (unlike comphrensive system), much of it involving private providers, that leads to greater inequalities
- increased centralisation of control: central gov alone has power to allow or require schools to become academies or allow free schools to be set up. school funded by central gov. rapid growth has greatly reduced role of elected local authorities in education.
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