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Overview of crime and deviance - Coggle Diagram
Overview of crime and deviance
Perspectives
Functionalist perspectives
Durkheim
Informal and formal constrains
Society holds cohesive values of shared empathy and cohesion that revolves around lack of crime
Informal constraints - judgement, gossip, socialisation
Formal constrains - CJS, police
Inevitability of crime
Even in society of saints some behaviours would be labelled as deviant
Not everyone is socialised into the same values
Functionality of crime
Done to change and further values within society
People only respond to what they believe is important - no point enforcing useless laws
Punishment of criminals furthers social cohesion
Merton
Evidence
Hannah and DeFronzo
Places that have higher welfare provisions have less crime
Merton
Post communist countries had huge influx of expectations of success goals but without ability to succeed in them so huge increase in crime
Poland - 1989-90 69% increase in crime
Strain theory - people commit crimes due to not being able to achieve success goals based in a meritocratic society
Rebellions
Cannot achieve success goals through normal or crime forms and so wish to create and entirely new society
Conformative
Conform to societies expectations and are able to achieve success goals
Innovative
Cannot achieve success goals in normal ways and so create new ways in form of crime and deviance
Retreatists
Cannot achieve success goals so are typically psychotics, dependents, crack under the pressure
Ritualists
Are not achieving success goals due to lack of occupational opportunities but stickler for the rules and do not seak out more
SUBCULTURES
Cloward + Ohlin
Delinquent subcultures are formed as a response to status frustration - most common in young wc men due to lack of opportunity within socieity
Criminal subculture - comes from organised society where socialised into utilitarian crimes
Conflict subculture - comes from lack of socialisation into one strong value
Retreatist subculture - failures in both criminal and otherwise so retreat into substance abuse and homelessness
Criticisms
Matza - assumes that they had an attatchment to original culture anyway / young delinquents not attatched to delinquent values
Miller- acts as though they are different to normal people when delinquent subculture and typical socialisation hold very similar values
Hirschi
Control theory - there are 4 social bonds that lead to commitment within life and so prevents criminality
4 social bonds
Shared moral beliefs
Commitment to conventional acitivities
Lack of time because of social obligations
Shared sensitivity between each other
Criticisms
Matza - assumes delinquents are attatched or have been socialised into typical values in the first place
Marxist perspectives
3 key features
Capitalist society is criminogenic
Selective law enforcement
Law is ideologically constructed
Chambliss
The law reflects ruling class ideologies, what is and isnt illegal is decided to protect their interests and private ownership
one law for the rich another for the poor
many situations would be described as criminal if it wasnt the ruling class creating the laws
Snider
law reflects ruling class ideologies, what is not beneficial to the ruling class is rarely made law and when it is its not forced and reduced when possible
Corporate crime leads to more death than murder on the street
Box
Law reflects ruling class interests, is ideologically constructed to criminalise those who go against them, major crimes committed by gov and corporations are not taken seriously
Gordon
Not surprising wc commit crime, surprising they do not commit more of it
Pearce
ruling class rarely prosecuted, false impression it is the wc who commit more crime, that is a narrative done to disguise exploitation
Taylor, waton and young
It is not those who are in prison who are criminals but the ones who stole the worlds wealth
Neo-marxist perspectives
Gilroy
Black crime is a political reaction to systematic oppression of the ruling class
Hall
Black crime is over-exaggerated by media as a way of scapegoating black people to take focus away from systematic oppression
Media labelled black muggers
Way for the ruling class to continue exploitation
Criticisms
Male stream, overmphasises class inequalities
Aim - to prove that crime is a choice and take away from deterministic value of traditional marxism
Labelling perspectives (interactionist)
Becker
Deviant career
When someone is labelled as criminal and so everyone treats them as such and so cannot achieve any further and so have to resort to crime
Master status
Once labelled as deviant build it into their self concept and so can only visualise themself as deviant and so becomes their master status
Police selectively enforce laws and act with pre-conditioned ideas of who is deviant and who isnt
Lemert
Primary deviance
The initial act of deviance which is not labelled as deviant until made publically aware
Secondary deviance
The acts of deviance that follow the initial act after labelling
Official stats unrepresentative because only show who has been caught
Police act with a preconditioned idea of who to arrest because cannot prosecute everyone - selective law enforcement
Cicourel
Investigated juvenile delinquence and found that police more likely to prosecute wc for same deviance as mc because view mc as a temporary lapse of judgement
Strengths
Examines relationship between those who label and those who recieve
Explains class differences
Highlights role of moral entrepreneurs
Weaknesses
Deterministic
Assumes people always act on labels
Malestream
Policy implications
Jones - initially led to criminalising everything because thought if law got involved would not lead to self concept
Led to legalising cannabis to avoid labelling of people
1990s idea was to criminalise everything
Criticisms
Acker
Assumes everyone acts on initial thought to be deviant after labelling
Gouldner
Portrays deviance as passive rather than active
Knutsser
Not enough evidence to prove the labelling causes rise in deviance
Social distribution
Ethnicity
Gilroy
Black criminality is committed as a reaction against political oppression
Left Realists
Marginalisation, lack of opportunities, in jobs or in education and so they respond with crime because arent given any other alternative
Lea + Young - cannot be labelling when 92% of crimes are reported by the public
Hall
There is no difference in ethnicity in crime and black crime is overexxergated
Crisis of hegemony - 1970s
Within the media they overexxagerated "black mujgger", home sec reported an increase in muggings over 100%, in law there is no specific definition of mugging and so one person would be arrested for mugging and so no way to measure what the home sec
once police made aware of suppossed increase are told to keep watch which leads to increased labelling and then led to increased arrests
Bowling + Phillips
Indirect and/or direct racial discrimination
Indirect
Social position - black people are more likely to be labelled as working class who are frequently labelled as criminal
Cooperation - black people cooperate less which leaves them less avialable for reduced sentences
Direct
stop and search, unfair sentencing, overrepresentation in prison - 2016 13% of the uk population 26% pirson population, 6x more likely to be stopped and searched, institutional racism
Increased robberies from black people due to them not have a foundation within british culture, displaced in society and so they have less opportunities, pakistani and bangladeshi have a foundation in britain
Reiner
"canteen culture" among police officers which leads to them labelling black people as more criminal, prioritise macho masculinity and competing and mistrust of people not arrest
Sharp and Budd
White people have higher re offending rates
Stats
Black people 2x more likely to be reported by police, 3x more likely to be arrested and 5x more likely to be in prison
Stop and search per 1000 people - highest for black people, mixed second highest
Sharp and Budd - survey found white people most frequently committed any offence and any serious offence in the past 12 months
Gender
Stats
Men 6x more likely to commit any indicitable offence
Stats by victim
Homicide - 70% men, 30% females
Violence with injury - male 52%, female 48%
Violent without injury - 59% female, 41% male
Sexual violence - 84% women, 16% men
Men 4x more likely to be arrested for theft
men 14x more likely to be arrested for robberies
men 13x more likely to be arrested for possession of weapons
Feminist perspective
heidensohn - invisibility of crime
women not considered in crime until recently
all sociologists investigating it are usually mc men
Messerschmidt
Found men view committing domestic abuse as fulfilling their masculine duty
Carol smart
Women given label of doubley deviant if show any deviance and so are less likely to commit crime because of sacrifices the label comes with
Functionalist - parsons
Women raised into expressive role and so are not socialised with the expectation they will be aggressive
Female crime
Women commit less crime
Women commit less detectable offences, 1/3 theft, and its typically low value items like clothes and food, whereas common theft items for men are things like watches and jewlerry
Sex role theory - functionalist
Women are sociallised into an expressive role, which leads to them being more caring and gentle and socialised away from agressiveness
More likely to be caring for a child and so have less opportunity to commit crime
Pat Carlen
Gender deal
Women are socialised into expecting to have a family and this being a success goal for them, they also expect material and emotional gains that come from this marriage, so when a women doesn't achieve this they are more likely to commit crime to solve this emotional expectation
Class deal
Women expect to be materially looked after and if they experience a state of material deprivation then they will commit crime as a result
Heidensohn
Women have more to lose from crime, when people commit crime its a rational choice, benefits of it will outwiegh the potential negatives
For men the benefits the negatives because less likely to lose their reputation and personal as a result but women are more likely to and so less likely to commit the crime
Social control within different spheres
Private sphere of the home
Women are constrained by their patriarchal obligations which means they have less opportunity to commit crime, teenage girls are monitored than teenage boys
Public sphere
Women are more firghtened to go out in the dark which leaves them less opportunity to commit crime, less likely to go for big job positions and so they are less likely to get involved in corporate crime
Social sphere
Men its quite common to be deviant for peer group status, whereas for women more likely to lose their reputation, especially within men which threatens their future for a family and such
The chivalry thesis - pollack
Women are treated kinder in cjs because its male-dominated and they view women in need of protection so they give out less harsh punishments
1/2 as likely to get sentenced than a man is
EVIDENCE AGAINST - women commit less serious crimes, more likely mitigating factors, more likely to be a mother, less likely to have any past offences
Walkate
Women are convicted for less serious than men
Carlen
Women are in double jeapordy by the courts in the majistrate because they are judged for their character as well as their crime
Evil women theory
Women who are viewed as promiscuous or criminal are viewed worse than men who commit the same crime especially if they have children
Adler - liberation thesis
increasing gender equality allows women more place in society
more opportunity for crime because more likely to go out into town
Denscombe
Ladette culture
Women are showing more examples of being deviant to elevate peer group status
Heidenson and silvestri
Women are being increasingly criminalised by the cjs because overexaggerated by the meida
leads to more labelling and more arrests
Male crime
Functionalist expl
Men socialised into instrumental role, less obligations at home so more opportunity to commit crimes - especially fiscal or white collar
Rational choice + Opportunity
Men more present in social fear because less fcear and patriarchal controls which gives them more options and opportunity to commit crime
Edgework - Lyng
Combination of not being able to access legitimate means and hegemonic masculinity leading to ruthlessness and thrill seaking which explains white collar crimes, domestic abuse and rape
Hegemonic masculinity - cornell
Men emphasise elements of masculinity like ruthlessness, thrill seeking and dominate of women as fulfilling masculine roles
Key element within wc men especially as method of gaining peer group status
Messerschmidt
Men view being abusive and resorting to criminal behaviour when legitimate means into society are blocked as fulfilling their masculine roel
Class
Crime stats
PRC - includes all officially recorded and reported crime
CSEW - includes all self report crime that have been a victim or perpetrator of - including unreported or victim crimes
2014 - 19% of crime went unreported
Self reports
EG, CSEW
Ask people to own up to crimes they have been victim or perpatrator off
Rely on: honesty, not exaggerating, remembering, being aware they have been a victim of or committed a crime
Problems with official stats
Do not include unreported or unrecorded crime
Police may consider matter too trivial
Police may not trust source reporting the crime
Victim may not be aware they were a victime
victim may be embarrased - eg, if scammed
White collar crime
Newburn - study of crime
Main focus consistently used to be on working class crime - crimes of the powerless because easily investigated and false assumption they committed more crime
Sutherland
First introduced idea that white collar crime needs to be investigated too
Timmer and Eitzen
Crime in the suites
Pearce
Crimes of the powerful - misery and money involved usually so significant it outwieghts working class crime
Upper class crime
White collar crime
When an individual commits illegal acts as a way of benefiting themselves or their organisation which disadvantages someone else
Eg, fraud, embezzlement, insider trading, bribery, corruption, professional misconduct
Slapper and Tombs - corporate crime
Crime committed by an organisation or corporation as a way to increase benefits and profits
Eg, waste dumping, green crimes, sending out unsafe consumer products, manufacturing offences, labour law offences
Croall - crimes against the NHS
Writing false prescriptions to claim more money than they are owed
Clarke and croall
White collar crime underepresented
Not as obvious as "blood on the streets"
"complaintless crimes"
Sometimes benefits both people
People arent aware they are victims
Hard to investigate and prosecute
Not thought of as criminal acts
Theories why
Merton
Strain theory, relative deprevation
In age of consumption of media mc feel as though they are deprived and so commit crimes for gains
Control theory
Driven by conformity to self seeking aggressive management culture
Everyone acts in a way to benefit themselves in business culture so everyone else does it and becomes normal business practice
Nelken
Strain and control theory
People want material goods that are associated with being welathy but not social obligations they are tied to
Cause crime as a result
Sutherland
Differential association
When associated with people who commit crimes in business practice become more likely to
Box, Slapper and Tombs
Marxist
Criminogenic capitalism
Focus on keeping up profits in global consumer market
Labelling
Nelken
Less likely to be labelled as criminal
Hire laywers to redefine actions
Croall
not accompanied with intent to harm so not labelled as criminal
Seduction of crime and edgework
Kats and Lyng
Thrill seeking nature of crime can be seductive and cause people to get addicted for material gain
Nelken
Subculture among young men very common to focus on thrill seeking especially with money
Examples of corporate crime
Oil companies who intentionally break law, automobile traders selling dodgy peices, pharmaceuticals selling contaminated medicine
Blacklisting
A white collar crime where employers do not hire someone due to their known past affiliation with trade unions
Most common in construction and trade industries
Althusser
Repressive state apparatus
Because weak laws by the state about blacklisting and rarely enforced and so represses the workers
Ideological state apparatus
Trusts the employer over the worker despite evidence of lists
Committed by economic league
Globalisation and crime
Basics info
Held and McGrew - definition of globalisation
The widening and deepening of worldwide interconnectedness
Karofi et al
Globalisation leading to established criminal economy which is leading to more types of crimes emerging
Examples of new types of crime
International trading of drugs, people, body parts
Green crime
Cybercrime
International money laundering
International terrorism
Human trafficking
2014, 13000 victims of slavery in britain alone
Money laundering
Harder to trace and easier to do now because of international accounts
Castells - global matrix
Cybercrime
Costs the uk £27bn a year
"glocal crime"
Farr - two types of crime networks
Established criminal organisations
Newer emerging crime organisations coming from new global routes into crime
Castells
Increasing links inbetween groups of crime emphasised
Glenny - McMafia
The way that crime organisations now function in the same way as global corporations as a way to increase efficiency and profits
Difficulty to research
Secret and dangerous elements to it
Reliance on secondary research
Requires specialist research
7 impacts of globalisation which are relevant to crime
Disorganised capitalism
Lash and Urry
Globalisation accompanied by lack of regulation from states over businesses and finances
Taylor
Leads to process of job insecurity because glolbalised job market
Cause people to weigh up benefits and costs of crime vs competing in global job market
Growing inequality
Taylor
Winners of globalisation are the TNCs and the rich
Losers are the poor as they are exposed to more risk and insecurity which feels like a crime
More opportunities for crime
Global communications lead to more opportunities for example through the dark web
Global risk society
Beck
Increased risk of global crimes can no longer identify to just one person
Media plays on this and blames it on immigration leading to increased hate crimes
Supply and demand
Huge consumption of western media advertising how good it is creates push of migration to these places, where immigration forces are stronger which creates illegal trafficking of people market
Similarly with drugs where in developed countries laws are stronger, creates industry in developing countries for drug production
Cultural globalisation and ideology of consumerism
Increasing cultural hegemony of western cultures where main ideololgy is that more consumption leads to more happiness
Young
hard for majority of people to reach this level of consumption, leads to criminal behaviours
Bulimic society
Growing industrialisation
Bauman
In age of modernity and growing industrialisation individual must rely on themselves only when improving lifestyle due to lack of garuntee from welfare state
Taylor
Individuals have to weigh up costs and benefits when commiting crime dependent on opportunities in society due to global job market and industrialisation
Green crime
Issues with definition
Illegal in some countries not in others
Wolf
Frequently labelled to be health and safety issues not green crime
Examples
1984 Bhopa India
Union carbide company released poisonous gas
25000 deaths
12000 suffering severe symptoms like breathing problems
BP oil spill
Largest marine oil spill
Killed 11 people
Extensive damage to wildlife
Volkswagen scandal
Employed defeat device into cars
Released 400x more gas than permitted
Trafigura
Illegal waste dumping by oil trading countries
15 different locations in Abidjan
Caused breathing problems, sickness, diohrea and deaths
News outlet reported the deaths and got into legal battle
Only outcome was had to pay some money to charity
How is green crime committed by
Individual people
Fly tipping
Littering
Carbon footprint
State
Santana
Military is largest institutional cause of environmental issues - unexploded landmines, marine usage, destruction of infrastructure
Corporations
Pollution of noise, land, air, sea
Release of excessive amounts of gas
Illegal waste dumping
Organised crime groups
White
Long standing involvement between organised crime groups and green crime
Massari and Monzini
Found strong link between organised crime groups and mafia and green crime like waste dumping in italy
Victims of crime
Potter
Social divisions are reinforced by victims of crime - wc/poor/minority ethnic groups are all more likely to be victims of crime
Environmental racism
White
Those who live in developing world are most at risk of being exposed to water, air and land pollution
Wolf
Inequalities in distribution of harm and in how laws are made, applied and enforced
Causes of green crime
Snider
States are unwilling to pass laws because of concern over businesses and profits
Only pass them when strong pressure from the public and weaken them when they can
Sutherland
Where states do pass laws they are not enforced because green crimes do not carry the same stigma as other crimes and so are not labelled as criminal
White
Comes from TNCs and states having an anthropocentric view of the world
Biggest concern is over growth and citizens
Wolf
Motivated by same causes as ordinary crime such as rational choice and opportunity
Pearce
The crimes of the powerful done to increase profits
Hard to investigate
Different laws/definitions
Difficulties in measuring
Cannot apply case studies widely
HR and state crimes
Green and ward
The illegal or deviant crimes perpetrated by state agencies as a way of furthering the states own interests
Doesnt have to be illegal just has to transgress human rights
"states organisational deviance involving the transgression of human rights" - distringuishes between sates actions and rogue individuals who appear to be acting on behalf of states interestis
Human rights are now a global norm so state crime is decreasing because have some inclination to partake
Intergration model
3 basic causes of state crime like other ordinary crimes
Motivation
Opportunity
Lack of controls
Hard to define because states are a system of law and so can define their own actions - can disguise actions
Need to take transgressive approach to solve problems with defining state crime because of differences among states b
Examples of crimes
Illegal imprisonment, torture and treatment of citizens
Corruption
Assisination
War crimes
Genocide
Terrorism
Kelmen and hamilton
The obedience model
States go through a process of enforcing obedience prior to state crimes as a method of ensuring effectiveness
Authorisation, dehumanistion, routinisation
Eg, nazi germany, genocide of the tutsis
Bauman - nazi germany example of obedience model, carried out in enclaves of barberism
O'Byrne
States are increasingly assessed by their ability to preserve human rights
Schmendinger
Human rights now include package of basic social and economic rights as well
Cohen
Techniques of state neutralisation
States either deny they have committed them by relabelling them or label them as regrettable but justifiable
EG,
US calling iran war a limited combat operation instead of a war
US saying they acted pre-emptively defensively so they could excuse their behaviour
China calling concentration camps centres for re-education, socialisation and necessary as a counter-terrorism project
Media and crime
Crime as a consumer spectacle
Media has always focused on types of crime that bring in the most views and has always been an element within pop culture
Hayward and Young
Crime has been a consistent theme within elements of pop culture
Rap songs, action films, video games all combine criminality with elements of what they portray
Crime has been used to be an advertiser
Media sets the criminal agenda
We talk about what the media promotes
Cannot discuss crimes that we do not know about
Allows media control of the perspective of elements of crime
Green and Reiner
Sexual and violent crimes are the ones most represented within the media due to them being the ones that people are interested in and the ones that bring in consumption
Over-represents things that are of consumer interest
Exploits a good story
Reiner
Anything reported has to pass through the values and judgements of the reporter before it is reported and so is subject to that - values and assumptions about what makes a story newsworthy
Jewkes
Things that make a story newsworthy:
Threshold
Proximity
Predictibility
Simplification
Risk
Greer
Values explain why media over-represents violent deviance, any form of deviance no matter how serious recieves huge coverage depending on violent factors
Surette - backwards law
Media creates a backward perspective of the representation of different types of crime in society
Greer and Reiner
Different types of backwards law in media:
Over-representation of serious crimes
Under-representation of common simple crimes
Over-representation of the harms property crime causes
Over-representation of the effectiveness of the police
Exaggerating the risk of becoming a victim faced by higher-status groups
Postmodernist perspective
Hyper-reality perspective created by media
Flatley - crime has been lowering in uk but 3/4 to 2/3 of people thought it was increasing
Media and moral panic
Media acts as moral entrepreneurs through controlling the narrative of what people should fear
Moral panic - the established fear over exaggerated imagery - folk devils - everything you do not want to be
Hall and Cohen
Media generated panic happens in times of uncertainty
Sensitises formal agencies to the issues causing them to be hypervigilant increasing the amount of arrests causing more uncertainty
Cohen Mods and Rockers
2 opposing youth delinquent groups
Got into scuffle one aster sunday in the 80s
Media over-exaggerated it when reporting it causing uncertainty and fear from local people
Caused police to have to be more aware which increased arrest records
McRobbie and Thornton criticism
No longer relevant because 24hr media
More competition within news people no longer just rely on one sources
Hall
Media does not exaggerate the fear that the people feel only the crime that is occuring
Green + Reiner
Idea that media causes crime by over-exaggerating crime leading to more vigilant policing leading to increase in crime records
Crime prevention
Types of crime prevention
Developmental prevention
Favoured by left realists
Based on knowing and noticing risk factors of crime and preventing them early
Idea of early intervention methods
Welsh and Farrington
4 types of developmental focus
Parent education and training
Parent management
Child skills training
Pre-schools intellectual enrichment programme
Eg
Parent court orders - training for three months
Sure start and head start centres
Criticisms
Marxist
Looks at causes of crime not the root of these causes so will continue to be an issue
Community prevention
Idea that everyone should help policing not just the police
Kelling - broken window theory
One sign of disorder leads to more so people should make the effort together to reduce this
1990s new york mayor made efforts to move clear signs of community breakdown and crime fell
Keizer et al
Study found in areas of open breakdown and disorder there was higher crime than where there wasnt
2006 - uk opened up more people to be involved in community prevention partnerships and opened these up to scrutiny
Situational prevention
Favoured by right realists
Based on rational choice and opportunity theorists
Idea that people commit crime because they have the opportunity so should focus on reducing this
Clarke 3 prevention methods
Surveillance
Target hardening measures
Environmental management
Scottish review focus on prevention
Increasing formal and natural agencies of prevention
Monitoring entrances and exits to residential areas
Target removal
erecting and strengthening physical barriers
restricting access to tools of crime
Criminal justice prevention
Prevents crime through detterance, incapacitation, legitimacy and rehabilitation
Most crimes handled by magistrates and crown courts do not end in imprisonment
2014 - 67% ended in fines and 12% in community service