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Media Violence & Media Pornography - Coggle Diagram

- - - - Study: Portrayals (Bhattacharya, 2025)
        
        Increasingly explicit portrayals of violence become more common
        
        Study: Specific Portrayals (McAnally et al., 2012)
        
        Compare violence in James Bond franchise
        
        Severity by types of injuries & how explicit
        
        Dr No (1969) has 109 acts of violence
        
        Quantum of Solace (2008) have 250 acts & more severe violence
      - Study: Comparison (Çelik, 2022)
        
        Comparitive analysis of streaming & broadcast TV
        
        Show amount of violence not necessarily increased
        
        Show contemporary series depict violence w. greater intensity & fewer contextual constraints (greater realism) than traditional television
  - - - Study: Meta-Analysis (Wood et al., 1991)
        
        P: 28 experiments including field studies
        
        M: Meta-analysis
        
        R: Exposure increase violence
        
        Study: Field Experiment (Leyens et al., 1975)
        
        P: Young offenders
        
        M: Show some violent movies for week
        
        R: Those who watched violent movie acted more aggressive
      - Experimental Findings
        
        Observational learning & modelling (Bandura; 19; Khadka, 2024)
        
        Adults may be imitated especially if rewarded
        
        Norms about aggression may be conveyed
        
        Identification w. aggressor enhances effects (Turner & Berkowitz, 1972; Eyal & Rubin, 2003)
        
        Identification w. violent video game characters led to more aggressive competitive behaviours in players (Konjin et al., 2007)
        
        Realism enhance attitudinal & behavioural effects (Berkowitz & Alioto, 1973; Anderson, Groves & Prot, 2022)
        
        Explanation
        
        Young people exposed may think is normative
        
        Normal to solve problems through violence
        
        Tie in products lead to youth enhancing identification & emulating their behaviour
        
        Study: Realism (Konjin et al., 2007)
        
        M: Ps split & told video from movie/wartime footage
        
        R: More aggression in those who believed was footage
      - Study: Meta-Analysis (Andison, 1977)
        
        P: 31 lab reports
        
        M: Meta-analysis
        
        R: Exposure to violent media have increase in violence in lab
    - - Study: Observational Field Studies (Parke et al., 1977)
        
        P: Boys in penal institution
      - Study: Before-and-after (Williams, 1986; Joy et al., 1986)
        
        P: Remote Canadian communities
        
        M: Communities studied before & after introduction of television reception
        
        Implication
        
        Correlation not causation
        
        TV also introduced advertising
        
        Consumer desire as new products some couldn't afford may have led to increase in burgulary
      - Study: Cross-Lagged (Eron et al., 1971)
        
        P: Children
        
        M: Cross-lagged correlational study
        
        R: Preference & aggression differ depending
        
        Strongest effects for males
        
        Implication
        
        Social norm that boys can be violent
        
        Socialised to be violence
        
        Violent protagonist in media often male
        
        Violence often 'rewarded'
        
        Study: Cross-Lagged (Huesmann & Eron, 1986)
        
        Study: Cross-Lagged (Huesmann et al., 2003)
        
        P: 400 children from 1970s study
        
        M: Follow-up on previous study
        
        R: Effects for males & females
        
        Implication
        
        May be due to changing social norms
        
        May be due to changing media presentations
        
        Methods
        
        Cross-lagged
        
        Time one measure of aggression, time two measure preference for violent media suggest media not a concern
        
        Time one measure of preference for violent media, time two measure of aggression suggest some causal relationship
        
        Results
        
        Preference predict aggression 10 years later
        
        Aggression not predict preference
      - Study: Longitudinal (Huesmann et al., 2021)
        
        P: 426 high-risk youth from Flint, Michigan
        
        R:
        
        Results
        
        Cumulative early violent video game play predicted greater likelihood of gun use/threats & stronger narrative beliefs gun use acceptable
        
        Implication
        
        Violence exposure shape long-term cognitive scripts, emotional desensitisation, & normative beliefs that make weapon-related aggression more likely
        
        But media not the sole driver
        
        Associated w. home environments
        
        But media exposure is a malleable factor
        
        What makes it interesting
      - Study: (Anderson et al., 2003;
        
        M: Review of short-term effects of violence in TV, film, video games, & music
        
        R: Media violence increases likelihood of aggressive in immediate & long-term contexts
        
        Study: Different Media (Anderson et al., 2022)
        
        M; Meta-analysis over 20 years
        
        Review long-term effects
        
        R: Evidence of harmful effects of media violence
        
        Evidence clearest w/in most extensively researched domain, TV, & film
        
        But increasing evidence for computer games
    - - Study: Critique (Ferguson, 2014)
        
        Corrlations between movie violence & real homicides in US
        
        At times correlated positively, sometimes negatively
        
        Claims publication bias against null results
        
        Critiques ecological validity of lab studies
        
        Study: Cross-Culture (Anderson et al., 2017)
        
        Measurements of media habits correlated w. self-report measures of aggressive behaviours & cognitions
        
        Across all nations exposure to violent screen media positively associated w. aggression
        
        Media violence effect on aggression remain significant evem after statistically controlling for number of relevant risk & protective factors
        
        E.g. Abusive parenting & peer delinquency
  - - - Study: Priming (Berkowitz, 1984)
        
        Priming agressive conditions
        
        Study: Priming (Turner & Layton, 1976)
        
        M: Priming w. word lists
        
        Study: Music (Anderson et al., 2003)
        
        Exposed Ps to music by the band Tool
        
        Sonf w. violent lyrics
        
        Study: Priming (Carnagey and Anderson,
        2005; Barlett and Rodeheffer, 2009)
        
        Individuals who just played violent game more likely to fill in letters of fragmented word in way that produce more aggressive words
        
        Compared to non-aggressive words
        
        Method
        
        Word lists
        
        Some lists had a few aggressive words
        
        Implication
        
        Initiate aggressive cognitive scripts
      - Study: Arousal (Zillman, 1971; 1996)
        M: Excercise bike & aggression
        
        R: Those on bike more aggressive
        
        Excitation-transfer hypothesis & misattribution of arousal
        
        Study: (Brown & Taylor, 2023)
        
        Physiological research show slow decay of synthetic excitation
        
        Study: (Gawronski & Strack, 2023)
        
        Neuroscientific evidence support theory
        
        Reveal arousal activates limbic system regions like amygdala
        
        Persist during emotional transaition
        
        Implication
        
        Challenges include individual & cultural differences
      - Study: Imitation
        
        Particularly children
    - - Emotional Blunting (Thomas & Drabman, 1977)
        
        Emotional blunting, desentitidsation & habituation
        
        Study: Desentitisation (Bushman & Anderson, 2009)
        
        M: Helping person who fell before/after seeing violent/nonviolent movie
        
        R: Quicker helping before, & more helping after non-violent
        
        Study: (Carnagey et al., 2009)
        
        Neuroscience evidence
        
        Study: (Arriga et al., 2015)
        
        Pupillometry experiment
        
        People who watch violent have less pupil dilation
      - Cultivation (Gerbner et al., 1986)
        
        Violence been around for decades
        
        But never been around in amount & severity as modern day
        
        People who watch more violence believe world is more violent
      - Social Scripts (Huesmann, 1986)
        
        Learning about aggression from TV
        
        Learn when to use violence & what is appropriate
        
        Study: (Carnagey et al., 2007)
        
        Supporting evidence from social neuroscience
        
        Brain areas associated w. learning & memory activated
        
        Study: (Berkowitz, 1993)
        
        Notions of scripts & priming highly compatible
      - Moral Disengagement (Li et al., 2020; Teng et al., 2017, 2019)
        
        Moral beliefs & values usually serve as brakes on aggressive impulses
        
        Studies show habitual exposure to media violence tends to lead people to fail to engage inhibitory processes (lowers inhibition)
        
        Leads to increased aggression
    - - Study: Parental Rules (Cote et al., 2021)
        
        Effect of parental rules resticting 10-14 year old access to violent video games
        
        Reduced children fighting behaviour 8 months later
      - Study: Successful Interventions (Anderson et al., 2022)
        
        Interventions that work do so through doing one/both of key methods
        
        Reduce amount of media violence exposure
        
        Reduce development of positive attitudes & beliefs about violent behaviour depicted in media violence (such as social script formation)
- - - - Study: Conditioning (Eysenck & Nias, 1978)
        
        Conditioning of orgasm/masturbation to violent porn
      - Study: Arousal (Zillman, 1971)
        
        Excercise bike & then some watch violent pornography
        
        Those who watched pornography more violent
        
        Arousal & excitation transfer when anger occurs before pornography exposure
      - Study: Watching Violence (Linz et al., 1984)
        
        Replicate Donnerstein (1980)
        
        Watching rape & violence towards women increase aggression & impacts attitudes towards rape
      - Study: Rape Myth (Linz et al., 1988)
        
        Belief that women enjoy being raped
        
        Study: Rape Myth (Foubert et al., 2011)
        
        Male US college students who watch porn more behavioural incentive to rape, more belief in rape myth & less likely to help rape victims/intervene as bystander witnessing an assault
        
        Study: Rape Myth (Hendrick, 2021)
        
        M: Meta-analysis
        
        Effect sizes can be small & some concerns around ecological validity & moderators
      - Study: Habituation Effect (Zillman & Bryant, 1984)
    - - Study: Circulation (Court, 1984)
        
        As circulation of porn increase, reported number of rapes increase
      - Study: Porn Sales (Baron & Straus, 1984)
        
        US sales figures for pornography magazines correlate w. rape figures
      - Study: Abuse (Cramer & McFarlane, 1994)
        
        Battered women in women's refuge shelters report former partners used porn
        
        More likely to end up in cycle of abuse
        
        Similar people as partners
      - Study: Effect of Porn (Bauserman, 1996)
        
        Evidence so far for effect of pornography limited
        
        Possibly indirect social learning effect
      - Study: Male Coercive Sexual Practices (Simons et al., 2012)
      - Study: Pornography & STI (Wright & Randall, 2012)
        
        Used GSS data
        
        Porn consumption & STI risk factors
        
        Changes in pornography exposure predict casual sex behaviour better than T1
        
        Casual sex behaviour predicts porn exposure at T2
      - Study: Meta Analysis (Rodenhizer & Edwards, 2019)
        
        Dating violence & sexual violence widespread growing problem in US
        
        Is there link to exposure to sexually explicit material & sexually violent media
        
        43 studied assessed using adolescents/emerging adults
        
        Exposure to sexually explicit material & sexually violent media correlate positively w. explicit material & violent media myths & more accepting material
        
        Exposure positively related to actual & anticipanted dating violence & sexual violence victimisation, perpetration, & bystander non-intervention
        
        Sexually explicit material & violent media have stronger effect on men's attitudes & behaviours
        
        Pre-existing attitudes a moderator
  - - - Relationship & sexual behaviours (Lambert et al., 2012)
        
        Condom use
        
        Number of partners
        
        Casual sex
        
        Relationship commitment
        
        Satisfaction w. partners
        
        Engagement in extra-martial sexual behaviour (Wright et al., 2014)
        
        Aggressiveness toward women (Simons et al., 2012)
      - Study: Body Image (Tylka, 2014)
        
        M: Attitude survey
        
        R: US college men had more body dissatisfaction & relationship anxiety the more they viewed pornography
        
        More men than ever seeking help from eating disorder clinics
    - - Moderator
        
        High risk individuals have hostile masculinity, accept rape myths, desire dominance/control
      - Study: Behaviours (Krahé et al., 2024)
        
        P: 588 German men & women studying at university
        
        Collected data over 2 year period at 3 time points
        
        Pornography exposure predictive of risky sexual behaviour in men & women
        
        Sex on first date
        
        Sex while drunk