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101-4-CH9-Learning, :dog2: 9.2 Classical Conditioning (Pavlov), :mouse: 9…
101-4-CH9-Learning
:dog2: 9.2 Classical Conditioning (Pavlov)
:gear: The Core Mechanism
:meat_on_bone: Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS): Naturally triggers a response without prior learning [1].
:drooling_face: Unconditioned Response (UCR): A natural, unlearned reflex [2].
:bell: Conditioned Stimulus (CS): A previously neutral stimulus paired with the UCS [3, 4].
:bulb: Conditioned Response (CR): The learned reflex to the CS [4].
:chart_with_upwards_trend: Acquisition: The initial stage of learning the CS-CR association [4].
🧠What is Actually Learned?
:crystal_ball: Law of Prediction: The CS-UCS association forms because the CS reliably predicts the UCS (Rescorla & Wagner) [5].
:twisted_rightwards_arrows: Paradoxical Conditioning: The CR is actually the opposite of the UCR, such as the body counteracting a drug to build tolerance [6, 7].
:mask: Types of Conditioned Responses
:nauseated_face: Taste Aversions: Associating a specific taste with an unpleasant feeling like nausea, which relies on ancient evolutionary pathways [8, 9].
:scream: Emotional Responses: Classically conditioning fear (like Little Albert) or joy (like responding to a favourite song) [10-12].
:shield: Immune Responses: The field of psychoneuroimmunology (PNI) shows the immune system itself can be conditioned to suppress or strengthen [13, 14].
:control_knobs: Modifying the Response
:mag_right: Stimulus Generalisation: Responding to new stimuli that resemble the original CS [15].
:dart: Stimulus Discrimination: Learning to respond ONLY to a restricted, specific stimulus [16].
:no_entry: Extinction: The weakening of a CR when the CS is repeatedly presented without the UCS [17].
🧟 Spontaneous Recovery: The short-lived re-emergence of a previously extinguished CR [17, 18].
:stopwatch: Factors Affecting Conditioning
:hourglass: Interstimulus Interval: The time between CS and UCS presentation; forward conditioning (CS precedes UCS) is usually most effective [19, 20].
:books: Learning History: Prior learning affects new associations, seen in phenomena like "blocking" and "latent inhibition" [21-23].
:monkey_face: Prepared Learning: The evolutionary, biological readiness to learn specific survival-based associations more easily than others [24, 25].
:microscope: Biological & Neural Basis
:zap: Long-Term Potentiation (LTP): The tendency for neurons to fire more readily after consistent stimulation, strengthening synaptic connections [26, 27].
:fearful: Amygdala: The brain region playing a central role in associating fear with a new stimulus [28].
:world_map: Hippocampus: Essential for contextual learning, linking the conditioned response to the broader environment [29].
:mouse: 9.3 Operant conditioning
:door: Introduction
law of effect
: an animal's tendency to reproduce a behaviour depends on that behaviour's effect on the environment
operant conditioning
: learning to operate on the environment to produce a consequence
operants
: behaviours that are emitted (spontaneously produced) rather than elicited
:gift: Reinforcement
reinforcement
: an environmental consequence that increases the probability that a response will occur
reinforcer
: an environmental consequence that occurs after a response and makes it more likely to recur
:heavy_plus_sign: Positive reinforcement
positive reinforcement
: presenting a stimulus after a behaviour makes it more likely to occur again
positive reinforcer
: an environmental consequence that strengthens the probability of a response when presented
superstitious behaviour
: erroneously associating an operant and an environmental event
:heavy_minus_sign: Negative reinforcement
negative reinforcement
: termination of an aversive stimulus makes a behaviour more likely to occur
negative reinforcers
: aversive or unpleasant stimuli that strengthen a behaviour by their removal
escape learning
: a behaviour is reinforced by the elimination of an existing aversive state
Avoidance learning
: an organism learns to prevent an expected aversive event
:no_entry: Punishment
punishment
: an environmental consequence that decreases the probability that a behaviour will recur
:red_cross: Extinction
Extinction
: occurs if enough conditioning trials pass in which the operant is not followed by the previously associated consequence
:chart_with_upwards_trend: Operant conditioning of complex behaviours
:stopwatch: Schedules of reinforcement
continuous reinforcement schedule
: the consequence is the same each time the animal emits a behaviour
partial or intermittent schedules of reinforcement
: the behaviour is reinforced only part of the time
ratio schedules of reinforcement
: pay-offs are tied to the number of responses emitted
interval schedules of reinforcement
: rewards are delivered only after some interval of time
fixed-ratio (FR) schedule
: an organism receives reinforcement for a fixed proportion of the responses it emits
variable-ratio (VR) schedules
: an animal receives a reward for an unpredictable (variable) number of responses
fixed-interval (FI) schedule
: an animal receives reinforcement for its responses only after a fixed amount of time
variable-interval (VI) schedule
: ties reinforcement to an interval of time, but the animal cannot predict how long
:traffic_light: Discriminative stimuli
response contingency
: a connection where the consequence is dependent, or contingent, on the behaviour
discriminative stimulus (SD)
: a stimulus that signals the presence of particular contingencies of reinforcement
:earth_africa: Context
Costs and benefits of obtaining reinforcement (behavioural economics)
Social and cultural context
:silhouettes: Characteristics of the learner
:hammer_and_wrench: Capitalising on past behaviours: shaping and chaining
shaping
: produces novel behaviour by reinforcing closer and closer approximations to the desired response
successive approximations
: the process of rewarding behaviours that move the subject progressively closer to the desired behaviour
biofeedback
: feeding information back to patients about their biological processes to gain operant control
chaining
: putting together a sequence of existing responses in a novel order
Enduring characteristics of the learner
Species-specific behaviour and preparedness
:bell: 9.2 Classical conditioning
:dog: Pavlov's model
Unconditioned stimulus (UCS): A stimulus that naturally produces a response without prior learning (e.g., food) [2, 3].
Unconditioned response (UCR): A naturally occurring, unlearned reflex (e.g., salivation) [3].
Conditioned stimulus (CS): A previously neutral stimulus paired with the UCS (e.g., a bell) [4, 5].
Conditioned response (CR): The learned reflex to the CS (e.g., salivation to the bell) [5].
Acquisition: The initial stage of learning where the CR becomes associated with the CS [5].
:mask: Conditioned responses
Conditioned taste aversions: A learned aversion to a taste paired with an unpleasant feeling like nausea, which is highly evolutionarily adaptive [6].
Conditioned emotional responses: An emotional reaction to a previously neutral stimulus, which helps explain the acquisition of human phobias (e.g., Watson's "Little Albert" experiment) [7-9].
Psychoneuroimmunology (PNI): Shows that the body's immune system can actually be classically conditioned to suppress or strengthen its responses [10-12].
:mag: Stimulus generalisation and discrimination
Stimulus generalisation: The tendency to respond to new stimuli that resemble the original CS [13].
Stimulus discrimination: The learned tendency to respond only to a restricted range of stimuli or the exact stimulus used in training [14].
:red_cross: Extinction
Extinction: The weakening of a CR when the CS is repeatedly presented without the UCS [15].
Spontaneous recovery: The short-lived re-emergence of a previously extinguished CR [15].
:stopwatch: Factors affecting classical conditioning
Interstimulus interval: The time between CS and UCS presentation; forward conditioning (CS precedes UCS) is usually most effective [16, 17].
The individual's learning history: Prior learning influences new associations, seen in "blocking" (prior associations block new ones) and "latent inhibition" [18, 19].
Preparedness to learn: The biologically wired readiness to learn some associations more easily than others, based on evolutionary survival [20].
🧠What do organisms learn in classical conditioning?
Law of prediction: The CS-UCS association forms because the CS reliably predicts the appearance of the UCS [21].
Paradoxical conditioning: The CR is actually the opposite of the UCR, such as the body counteracting a drug to build tolerance [22].
:zap: Learning at the synapse & Neural circuits
Long-term potentiation (LTP): The tendency for a group of neurons to fire more readily after consistent stimulation [23].
Amygdala: The brain region playing a central role in associating fear with a new stimulus [24].
Hippocampus: Essential for contextual learning, linking the conditioned response to the broader environment [25]
:mouse: 9.3 Operant Conditioning (Skinner & Thorndike)
:gear: Core Concepts
:scales: Law of Effect: An animal's tendency to reproduce a behavior depends on the consequence it has on the environment [1].
:person_with_ball: Operants: Behaviors that are spontaneously "emitted" rather than automatically "elicited" [2].
EMIT
V
operant
ELICIT
classical
:gift: Reinforcement (Increases Behavior)
:heavy_plus_sign: Positive Reinforcement: Adding a rewarding stimulus to make a behavior more likely to occur again [3].
:heavy_minus_sign: Negative Reinforcement: Removing an aversive stimulus to strengthen a behavior [4].
:runner: Escape Learning: Terminating an existing aversive situation, like taking a painkiller for a headache [5].
:shield: Avoidance Learning: Preventing an expected aversive event before it happens, like applying sunscreen [5].
:no_entry: Punishment (Decreases Behavior)
:heavy_plus_sign: Positive Punishment: Exposing the learner to an aversive event following a behavior [6].
:heavy_minus_sign: Negative Punishment: Losing or failing to obtain a reinforcer as a consequence of behavior [7].
:warning: Drawbacks: Punishment can cause the learner to fear the punisher, often fails to teach alternative behaviors, and is frequently applied in anger [8-10].
:stopwatch: Schedules of Reinforcement
:repeat: Continuous: Rewarding a behavior every single time, which is highly effective for initial learning [11, 12].
:game_die: Intermittent/Partial: Rewarding behavior only some of the time, making it highly resistant to extinction [12, 13].
:pushpin: Fixed-Ratio (FR): Providing a reward after a set proportion of responses, like piecework pay [14].
:slot_machine: Variable-Ratio (VR): Providing a reward after an unpredictable number of responses, as seen in gambling [15].
:alarm_clock: Fixed-Interval (FI): Providing reinforcement only after a fixed amount of time has passed [16].
:question: Variable-Interval (VI): Providing reinforcement after an unpredictable time interval, like surprise inspections [17].
:hammer_and_wrench: Modifying Behavior
:red_cross: Extinction: A behavior decreases when it is no longer followed by its previously associated consequence [18].
:chart_with_upwards_trend: Shaping: Teaching a novel behavior by reinforcing closer and closer approximations of the desired response [19, 20].
:chains: Chaining: Putting a sequence of existing responses together in a novel order [21].
:traffic_light: Discriminative Stimuli: Cues in the environment that signal when a specific contingency of reinforcement is in effect [22, 23].
:earth_africa: Context & Constraints
:pig: Species-Specific Preparedness: Animals can struggle to learn operants that conflict with their evolutionary, instinctive behaviors [24, 25].
:moneybag: Behavioural Economics: Organisms perform cost-benefit analyses when choosing which reinforcers to pursue [26, 27].
:family: Cultural Context: Societies differ in their reliance on punishment versus communal teaching to condition social behaviors [28-30].
:brain: Chapter 9: Learning
:bulb: What is Learning?
:book: 9.1 What is Learning?
:bulb: Core Definition
Enduring change in response based on experience [1, 2].
Central to adaptation and predicting the future [1].
:zap: Reflexes & Habituation
Reflex: Automatic behavior elicited by an environmental stimulus [3].
Habituation: Decreasing strength of a reflex after repeated stimulus presentations [3, 4].
:triangular_ruler: Assumptions of Learning Theories
Experience shapes behavior, meaning most responses are learned rather than innate [5].
Learning is adaptive, as the environment selects useful behaviors [5, 6].
Experimentation uncovers universal laws of learning [2, 6].
:link: Associationism
Rooted in Aristotle's laws of association [7].
Law of contiguity: Events experienced close together in time become connected [7, 8].
Law of similarity: Objects that resemble each other become associated [8].
:mag: Guiding Questions
Are humans like other animals in the way they learn? [9, 10].
What constraints and possibilities has evolution placed on learning? [9, 10].
Can we understand learning without reference to mental processes? [10].
:bell: Classical Conditioning (Pavlov)
Learning by association between two stimuli [4, 5]
UCS (Unconditioned Stimulus) -> UCR (Unconditioned Response) [5, 6]
CS (Conditioned Stimulus) -> CR (Conditioned Response) [7, 8]
Key Phenomena
Stimulus generalisation: responding to similar stimuli [9]
Stimulus discrimination: responding only to the specific stimulus [10]
Extinction: weakening of CR when CS is presented without UCS [11]
Spontaneous recovery: short-lived re-emergence of extinguished CR [11]
Factors Affecting It
Interstimulus interval: time between CS and UCS [12]
Learning history: prior associations can block new ones [13, 14]
Prepared learning: evolutionary readiness to learn certain associations [15]
:mouse: Operant Conditioning (Skinner & Thorndike)
Learning to operate on the environment to produce a consequence [16]
Reinforcement (Increases behavior) [17]
Positive: Adding a rewarding stimulus [17]
Negative: Removing an aversive stimulus [18]
Punishment (Decreases behavior) [19]
Positive: Adding an aversive stimulus [20]
Negative: Removing a rewarding stimulus [21]
Schedules of Reinforcement [22, 23]
Continuous: rewarded every time [22]
Fixed-Ratio: rewarded after a set number of responses [24]
Variable-Ratio: rewarded after an unpredictable number of responses [25]
Fixed-Interval: rewarded after a set amount of time [26]
Variable-Interval: rewarded after an unpredictable amount of time [27]
Shaping: rewarding successive approximations of a desired behavior [28, 29]
:thought_balloon: Cognitive-Social Theory
Incorporates thought and social learning into behaviorism [30]
Latent learning: learning that occurs but is not currently manifest in behavior [31]
Cognitive maps: mental representations of space (Tolman) [31]
Expectancies: beliefs about the consequences of a behavior [32]
Locus of control: internal (you control your fate) vs. external (outside forces control it) [33]
Learned helplessness: expectancy that one cannot escape aversive events [34]
:busts_in_silhouette: Social Learning
Learning through social interaction [35]
Observational learning: learning by watching others [36]
Modelling: reproducing behavior exhibited by a model (Bandura) [37]
Vicarious conditioning: learning from observing the consequences of someone else's actions [38]
Tutelage: learning through direct verbal instruction [39]
🧠9.4 Cognitive-social theory
:bulb:
cognitive-social theory
: incorporates concepts of conditioning but adds a focus on cognition and social learning
:thought_balloon: Learning and cognition
:rat: Latent learning
cognitive maps
: mental representations or images of the environment
latent learning
: learning that has occurred but is not currently manifest in behaviour
:gear: Conditioning and cognition
Animals learn to expect consequences; a CS predicts the UCS, and intermittent reinforcement creates expectations
:monkey: Insight in animals
Insight
: the sudden understanding of the relation between a problem and a solution
:crystal_ball: Expectancies
expectancies
: an individual's expectations about the consequences of a behaviour
generalised expectancies
: expectancies that influence a broad spectrum of behaviour
locus of control
: generalised expectancies people hold about whether their own behaviour can bring about desired outcomes
internal locus of control
: the belief that you are the master of your own fate
external locus of control
: the belief that life is determined by outside forces
:dog2: Learned helplessness and explanatory style
Learned helplessness
: the expectancy that one cannot escape aversive events and the resulting motivational deficits
explanatory style
: the way people make sense of bad events (e.g., a pessimistic style blames internal, stable, and global factors)
depression
pessimism
:silhouettes: Social learning
social learning
: learning that occurs through social interaction
observational learning
: learning by observing the behaviour of others
modelling
: a process where a person learns to reproduce behaviour exhibited by a model
vicarious conditioning
: learning the consequences of an action by observing its consequences for someone else
tutelage
: teaching concepts or procedures primarily through direct verbal explanation or instruction
