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biology 160 chapters 1-12 review - Coggle Diagram
biology 160 chapters 1-12 review
chapter 3 the molecules of the cell
Organic compounds
Carbon and hydrogen based
Ion- charged atom or coumpound or molecule with a changed number of electrons
Isotope- has a different number of neutrons
Isomer- same ingredients but differend structure and functions
Hydro carbons are made of only carbon and hydrogenand are nonpolar
hydroxyl - a carbon bonded to a OH group
Polar
hydrophylic
Acid
Carbonyl- carbon double bonded to a oxygen
Polar
Hydrophyilic
Carboxyl- carbon doubble bonded to a oxygen and a OH group
Polar
Hydrophylilic
Acid
Amino- carbon bonded to a NH2
Polar
Hydrophylilic
Base
Phosphate- phosphate double bonded to a oxygen on top and single bonded to oxygens the rest of the way around. One oxygen has a carbon on it, one has a hydrogen and the last one is open
Polar
Hydrophilic
acid
Methyl- carbon bonded to a carbon and three hydrogens
Nonpolar
Hydrophobic
Cells make large molecules from a limited set of small molecules. Three of four classes of biological macro molecules make polymers useing a dehydration reaction we break polymers with hydrolysis
Often large size
Polymers
Macro molecule
4 classes of biological molecules
Carbohydrates
Monomer- monosaccharide the formula is a multiple of CH2O, 3-7Cs. Most carbohydrates end with a -ose, enzymes end with a -ase
2 monosaccharides make a disaccharids through dehydration reactions
Lipids- Are a diverse group defined by being hydrophobic.
Fats- triglycerides consist of glycerol linked to three fats double bonds mean unsaturated fat makes it stick out in a wonku direction and is liquid at room temp(oil) saturated fats become solid at room temp(butter) hydrogenated fats are like fake saturated fats cuz the hydrogen is forced in to break the doubble bonds
Phospholipids
steroids
Proteins
Involved in most dynamic functions in the body
Very diverse- 10,000+ in the body
monomer=amino acid
Polymer = protien/polypeptide
Wrong shapes/ messing with shapes of proteins messes with it and can denature and cause problems
Prions- missfolded proteins that can cause a lot of damage
Peptide bond is a bond between two amino acids when using a dehydration reaction
Nucleic acids
Phosphate group(hydrophylic)
Sugar
Nitrogonous base
Two types of nucleic acid
Deoxyrybose
Ribose
Five types of nitrogenous base
Purines
Genuine
Adinine
Pyrimidines
Cytosine
Thymine
uricile
Hydrolysis breaks stuff down especially polymers
chapter 5 working cells
Membrane structure and function
fluid mosaic model
Fluidphospholipid bilayer
Mosaic of diverse proteins
Plasma membrane is semipermiable the proteins preform various functions
Glyceroprotiens are lids molecular name tags for the individual cell
Transports
Passive transport has noenergy spent
Diffusion - the tendency of particles to spread out evenly in the available space
Osmosis - water selectivle permeable membrane if the membrane is not permeable to solute, water moves
All this canonly happen in cells going through the cell membrane only if the membrane is permeable
tonisity - describes what happens to cells put in a specific solution
Hypertinic- outside the cell has a high solute and low water concentration will make the cells shrink
Hypotonic- inside the cell has low solute and high water outside( cell expands)
Isotonic- equal concentrations in and out
Animail cells
Osmoregulation- water balance between cells and theur surroundings is lyced means cells crucial to organism pop from too much water
Plant cells
Plants want hypertinic solutions they swell their cells till there is no more room to swell
Transport in the cell
Facilitated diffusion
Diffusion through a membrane protein
Active transport
Spend energy’
Going against the flow lids flowin from low to high concentrationgenerally you need a protein to help
Bulk transport
Moving big things or a lot of something
Uses vesicles
Exocytosis- moving things outof the cell
Endocytosis- movint things into the cell
Phagocytosis- large solid substances(eating)
Receptor- mediated endocytosis targetid with receptors to get a lot of something like fishing hooks catching stuff
Energy in the cell
Kinetic energy
Thermal energy- the energy from the heat makes our particles move
Potential energy
Chemical energy- molecular energy has energy it is built into the structure of the molecule which makes it potential energy
Thermal dynamics
System- whatever amount you are interested in the rest is surroundings
Surroundings-everything outside the system
Isolated vs. open
Isolated- no contact with surroundings
Open- able to interact with surroundings
Law of energy concervation- energy can change form but cannot be created or destroyed
Law of thermal dynamics- energy transfers or transformations increase disorder or entropy with some energy being lost as heat
Exerginic reactions- release energy paired with hydrolysis
Endergonic- energy into the reaction dehydration
Catabolic pathways
Breaks down muscles (ecergonic/ hydrolysis)
Anabolic pathways
Builds muscles endogonic dehydration
Metabolism- all the chemical reactions in the system
Metabolic pathway- series of small reactions to get ot a end goal
Energy coupling- connecting energy released to energy usage(ATP is main energy coupling)
ATP- powers nearly all forms of celluler work, all three phosphates are negative. You release the thirdone and get energy to do all the things
Phosphorylation- drives work
Chemical work- ATP to ADP reaction
Transport work- transparent proteins moving stuff through a protein.
Mechanical work- motor protein like the ones that move vesicles and work the muscles.
How enzymes function Facilitated diffusion
Protein catalysts- helps reactions happen but dont get used up
Activation energy- the energy spent to make something happen like breaking a bond between diccharides to make them monosaccharides
Substrate- the thing interacting with the enzyme in the active site
Active site- the spot that the reaction happens in
Induced fit- an enzyme substrate hug, enzyme ajusts itself to fit with the substrate
Optimal conditions for enzymes
Temperature
If the temperature changes too much the ehzyme can be denatured like when eggs cppk the enzymes change and are denatured
PH- change in PH also can denature proteins basically changing the environment to much denatures enzymes
Co enzymes
Organic enzymes that complete the active site in the body if you miss it u got health problems
Inhibitors
Competitive inhibitors- compeat with the active site for the substrate
Non competitive- somewhere outside the active site not competing withthe active site.
Feedback inhabition_ helps regulate the metabolism and can be a product
chapter 12
chapter 9
chapter 8
chapter 4 cells
Microscope parameters
Magnification
Resolution
Contrast
SEM contrast is gold
TEMcontrast is heavy metals
Prokaryotic cells
Bacteria and archea
Prokaryotes
First to evolve
Eukaryotic cells
Larger
Membranebound organells
Eukarya
Prokaryotes
Nucleoid
Cell wall( outside of the membrane)
flagella
cells have
Plasma membrane
DNA in chromosomes
Ribosomes where proteins are made
Cytosol- the jelly like stuff that everything is swimming in
cytoplasam - mostly water and includes all the organells and the cytosol basically everything outside of the nucleus.
Nucleus
Atom- the inner most oart where the protons and neutrons are
Cell- organell holding the DNA
Nucleoid- prokaryote only, area with DNA
Nucleolus- inside the nucleus where ribosomes are built
Chromatim- unpacked DNA floating freely and not in chromosomes
Chromosome- 2 DNA polunucleotides packed up are ready for the cell to divide
Organelles- membrane bound structures
Genetic control
Nucleus- eukaryotic membrane bound organell that holds the DNA
Ribosomes- Make proteins from directions from DNA
Manufacturing, distribution and breakdown
ER
Golgi apparatus
Lysosome
Energy processing
Mitochondria
Chloroplasts
Support movement and monnunication
Cytoskyleton
Plasma membrane
Cell wall
The endomembrane system
Functions
Synthesis
Distribution
Storage
Export of molecules
Breaking things down
Organnels
Nucleus envelope
The outside wall of the cell
Endoplasmic ritculum
Rough ER
Produces membranes
Surface ribosomes make membrane and secretory proteins
Is a network of tubes and sacs
Smothe ER
Synthesizes lipids and processes toxins
Makes more phospolipids
Stores calcium ions
Breaks down alcohol
Golgi apparatus
Processes and dends out ER products to other organells in the cell
Lysosome
Lysosome is lids the stomach of the cell it breaks down substances and damaged organells with enzymes
Vacuols
Large vesicles with a variety of functions such as
Food vacuoles
Cpntractile
And large central vacuoles
Secretion
Basically the cell pulling stuff in fromthe outside that it needs
Peroxisomes
Metabolic compartments that do ot originate from the endo membrane system
Energy conversion
Mitochondria
Cellular respiration
Uses Oxygen
Releases carbon dioxide
Produces ATP
Two layers of membrane and the inner one realy is folded ip foe maximization of surface area for maximum efficiency
Mitochondrial matrix( the inner most part)
DNA
Ribosomes
Enzymes
chloroplasts(only in plant cells)
Photosynthesis
Happens in the thylakoid membrane stacks which are called granum they are also insanely folded up for maximum efficiency and the thylakoid membrane is in the stroma a jelly liquid inside the chloroplast
DNA
RIbosomes
Endosymbiant theory
Mitochondria and chloroplasts were from really small prokaryotes that begnae living with in larger cells
They divide like bacteria and are the only way to get more
Have their own DNA and ribosomes both of which look lrokaryotic
Have eukaryotic membrane and prokaryotic innermembranes
The cytoskleteon and cell surfaces
Cytoskleteon
Skeleton of the cell
Maintence of the cell shape
Anchorage and movement of organells
Amoebid movement
Microfilaments- solid and small
Micro tubals- tibe large
Intermediate filaments- solid medium
Microtubulas
Shape and support
Tracts for motor proteins
Separate chromosomes for cell division
Cilia and flagella
Centrosmes and centrioles
Intermediate filament
Reinforces shape
Fix organelle position
Permanent framework
Micro filaments
Support and shape
Pseudopidia
Muscle cell contraction
Cytoplasmic streaming
Eukaryotic cillia and flagella
Locomotion
9+2 arrangement of microtubles
Extracellular matrix
Animal cells only
Functions- binds tissue supports plasma membrane communicates
Proteins in plasma membrane that fonneft the inside of the cell with the outside
Junctions
Tight junction
is water tight
Anchoring
Intermediate filament connections
Gap
Proteins linking them together
Nervus system and heart have a lot of gap junctions
(plant cells) cell wall
Outside of the plasma membrane
Protection and support
Cellulose
Cell wall juncitons are tubes through the cell wall
chaapter 6
chapter 2 the chemical basis of life
Matter- takes up space and has mass, it starts at the atomis elemental level
Coumpounds- have 2 or more elements in a fixed ratio
Top 4 elements of life
Oxygen
Carbon
Hydrogen
Nitrogen
Other good elements for the body
Calcium
Phosphorous
Potassium
Sulfur
Sodium
Trace elements required to pervent disease
Flouride
Iodine
Iorn
Chemical bonds
The distribution of electrons determines an atom’s chemical properties
Covalent bonds- share electrons and are the strongest bonds
Ionic bonds- transfer electrons/ give away. These are not as strong as covalent bonds
In a nonpolar covalent bond, electrons are shared equally
In polar covalent bonds, such as thoes found in water, electrons are pulled in closer to the more electronevative atom Polar covalent bonds have slight charges and are a little sticky while nonpolar bonds dont wanna interact as much
Ion- a aton or molecule with an electrical charge form the gain or loss of electrons
Two Ions with opposite charges attract eachother
Water’s life supporting properties
Cohesion- water is sticky because of the hydrogen bonds cuzit is made of polar covalent bonds. The oxygen in the water is more electro negative which makes the molecule polar
Adhesion- has the ability to stick to other stuff well
Surface tension- liquid water really wants to stick to itself, and it does this so well that it can support light weight things sitting on the top of the water and prevent them from sinking.
Water moderates temperature through
Kinetic energy
Thermal energy
Transfer of heat
Temperature
Water absorbs a lot of heat before the temperature increases
Oce floats on top because it is less dense than the liquid water due to the electrons being less excited due to having less heat
Water is the universal solvent of life
PH stands for the power of hydrogen
Ph is a scale for measuring how much hydrogen is in a substance otherwise known as a scale for measuring acidity levels
Buffers avoid changing the ph
Acid breaks down food( and other stuff) and is good at storing energy(bateries)
chapter 10
chapter 1 the scientific study of life
Seven properties of life
Order- parts are organized
Response to the environment
Regulation- control of stuff on the inside so it stays constant
Reproduction
Growth and development- growth getting bigger development changing and developing like puberty
Energy processing
Evolutionary adaption
How is life recognized
Cells are the smallest ‘organism’ and the smallest unit of functional life
There are different domains of bacteria
Bacteria
Archaea- lives in very harsh climates
Eukarya
Protits
Plantae
Animila
Fungi
Taxonomy levels
Biosphere
Ecosystem
Community
Population
Organism
Organs and organ systems
Tissue
Cell
Organelle
Molecules and atoms
Scientific method
Observatation
Question
Hypotheses-this is a prediction that must be testable, must be falseafighable, and is produced through observations
Test
Analize the data
Conclusion\ communicate
Scientific theory- is broad in scope and is supported by a lot of evidence
Expirnmental design- only manipulate one variable at a time
process of science- science is a way of knowing an approach to understanding the natural world based on evidence and data and a process of inquiry.
Five unifying themes in biology
Life is distinguished by its unity and its diversity
The scientific explanation for this unity and diversity is evolution(sike its actually God and his creation)
Natural selection( Creation)
Each species on earth today has a family history
Life depends on the flow of information
The process of life all depends on transmission and use of information
DNA blueprint and instructions
Information from external and internal inviornments
Structure and function
Life depends on the transfer and transformation of energy and matter
Life depends on interaftions within and between systems
chapter 7
chapter 11