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Animal Physiology Part 2 - Coggle Diagram

- - - - The process involves diffusion, where molecules move from areas of higher concentration to lower concentration, facilitating the exchange of gases and nutrients.
  - - - Right Ventricle: Pumps oxygen-poor blood to the lungs via the pulmonary arteries.
        
        Lungs: Blood becomes oxygen-rich.
        
        Left Atrium: Receives oxygen-rich blood from the lungs.
        
        Left Ventricle: Pumps oxygen-rich blood to the body via the aorta.
        
        Body Tissues: Oxygen is delivered, and carbon dioxide is collected.
        
        Right Atrium: Receives oxygen-poor blood from the body, completing the cycle.
  - - - Atrial and Ventricular Diastole (0.4 seconds): Both atria and ventricles are relaxed. Blood flows from large veins into the atria and then goes into the ventricles through the atrioventricular valves.
      - Atrial Systole and Ventricular Diastole (0.1 seconds): The atria contract, pushing the remaining blood into the ventricles.
      - Ventricular Systole and Atrial Diastole (0.3 seconds): The ventricles contract, pumping blood into the large arteries through the semilunar valves.
  - - - carry blood away from the heart. They have thick, elastic walls composed of connective tissue, smooth muscle, and an inner endothelium.
      - This structure allows them to handle high pressure from the heart's pumping action.
    - - These are the smallest blood vessels, with walls just one cell thick.
      - Allows for the exchange of gases, nutrients, and waste between blood and tissues.
    - - Veins return blood to the heart. They have thinner walls compared to arteries and contain valves to prevent backflow, as blood pressure in veins is lower.
- - - - Physical components and function
        
        Skin and mucous membranes,
        
        These barriers physically block pathogen entry. Mucus traps pathogens, and ciliated cells in the airways help expel them. Secretions like saliva and tears contain lysozyme, an enzyme that breaks down bacterial cell walls.
      - Chemical components and function
        
        Body secretions create hostile environments for pathogens.
        
        The acidic pH of the stomach (around 2) kills many ingested pathogens. Similarly, the acidic pH of skin secretions (pH 3-5) inhibits bacterial growth.
      - Cellular components and function
        
        Phagocytic Cells: Macrophages and dendritic cells ingest and destroy pathogens.
        
        Natural Killer Cells: These cells induce the death of virus-infected cells.
        
        Antimicrobial Proteins: Proteins like interferons and components of the complement system help eliminate pathogens.
        
        Inflammatory Response: Chemicals like histamine increase blood flow and immune cell access to infected areas.
        
        All work together to provide a rapid, non-specific response to pathogens, distinguishing innate immunity from the slower, specific adaptive immunity.
    - - Cellular components and function
        
        B cells
        
        B cells differentiate into plasma cells that produce antibodies, which neutralize pathogens in body fluids. They also form memory B cells for quicker responses upon re-exposure to the same pathogen.
        
        T cells
        
        involved in cell-mediated immunity. Helper T cells activate other immune cells, while cytotoxic T cells destroy infected host cells. Memory T cells ensure a rapid response to future infections.
      - Chemical components and dunction
      - Only in vertebrates
        
        Slower than the innate response, but provides long-lasting protection through immunological memory.
    - - Develops when exposure to a pathogen or through vaccination prompts the body to produce its own antibodies.
        
        Occurs when a person is exposed to a live pathogen, develops the disease, and then recovers, leading to immunity.
    - - Occurs when antibodies are transferred from another source, such as from mother to fetus through the placenta or through breast milk. This type of immunity is temporary.
- - - - The rib cage expands when muscles contract during inhalation, while the diaphragm contracts and descends. Air rushes in through the mouth and nostrils, filling the lungs as a result of this action, which reduces the air pressure in the lungs compared to the outside air.
      - The diaphragm relaxes and rises during exhale, and as the rib muscles relax, the rib cage shrinks. As a result, the lungs' air pressure rises, forcing air out the mouth.
    - - To push air down the trachea
        
        actively forcing air into the lungs by creating a higher pressure in the mouth or throat compared to the lungs.
  - - - Hemoglobin is found in red blood cells.
        
        Consists of four subunits, each with a heme group containing an iron atom. This iron atom binds oxygen molecules, allowing a single hemoglobin molecule to carry up to four oxygen molecules.