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Animal Physiology - Coggle Diagram

- - - - activate other cells
    - - can be dendrite, b cell , macrophage
  - - - triggered by infections and vaccines
      - long lasting protection cells
        
        memory cells
  - - - get sick- body makes antibodies
      - natural passive
        
        mother to baby
        
        placenta and breast milk
  - - - create memory cells
    - - injection of antibodies
- - - - pressure exetted by a particular gas
      - gas diffusion is from higher to lower partial pressure
    - - part of animal body- gas exchange
      - always moist
      - gas exchange is fast when the area of diffusion is large and path is short
        
        sponges, chidarians, flatworms
      - some amphibeans and other animals the skin- respitory organ
        
        respitory organ folde/ branched- enlatfe surface area for gas exchange
        
        gills trachea lungs
    - - Marine worm
        
        flattned appendages- gills
      - crayfish/ crustaceans
        
        long feahtery gills- gills
      - sea star
        
        tubular projections- gills
      - ventilation
        
        maintains partial pressure
        
        move gills thorugh water/ move water out of gills
        
        musslels and clams move water through cilla
      - countercurrent exchange
        
        exchange of substances/heat between 2 fluids going diffferent ways
  - - - leads to the opening of the trachea/ windpipe
        
        allows food to go down the esophagous to stomach
      - tracea branches into bronchi
        
        bronchioles
  - - - the process that ventilates lungs
    - - ventilates lungs by positive pressure brething
        
        inflating the lungs with forced air flow
        
        muscle lower the floor of the oral cavity draw air through the nostrils
        
        nostrils/ mouth close floor or nasal cavity rises forcing air in trachea
    - - passes air over the gas exchange surface in one direction
        
        within the lugs, tiny channels- parabronchi- gas exchange
        
        passage of air through the entire system, air sacs/lungs- 2 cycles of inhalation / exhalation
      - highly efficient
    - - negative preassure breathing- pull air into lungs
        
        expanding thorastic cavity- rib muslce and diaphram
        
        diaphram contracts- inhale, and relaxes- exhale
      - tidal volume
        
        volume of air inhaled and exhaled with each breath
        
        vital capacity
        
        max inhale/ exhale
        
        residual volume
        
        air that remains after a forced exhale
  - - - circulate with blood/ hemolymph contain specialized cells
      - O2 needs pigments to dissolve better in blood
    - - contain iron
        
        binds to O2-carries it through body
- - - - ciclatory system in hydras, jellies, and other cnidarians
    - - Hemolymph ( Interstitial fluid)
        
        Arthopods- grasshoppers and some moluscs
        
        contractions of the heart pump hemolymph through circulatory vessels into sinuses and into spaces around the organs
        
        in the sinuses, the fluid and body cells trade gases and chemicals
        
        when the heart rests, draws the fluid back in through pores,
        
        hemolymph is essentally circulated through body movements squeezing the sinuses
      - Use less energy bc of low hydrostatic pressure
        
        A spider uses the pressure to extend legs
    - - Blood ( circulatory fluid)
        
        Annelids, cephalopods, all vertebrates
      - The heart pumps blood into large vessels that branch into smaller ones ( tissues and organs)
      - blood pressure is high enough to deliver O2/ nutrients to larger animlas
        
        regulates the movement of blood to different organs
    - - Arteries- carry blood from heart to organs
        
        within the organs arteries branch into arterioles
        
        Arteriols convey blood to the capillaries (micro vessels with thin pores walls)
        
        Capillary beds ( network of capillaries) inflaturate tissues passing a few cell diameters of every cell in the body
        
        The thin walls of capillaries disolve gases and any chemicals that are exchanges by diffusion between the blood and fluid around the tissue cells
        
        Capillaries turn into venules that converge into veins- carry blood back to heart
        
        portal veins- carry blood between capillary beds
      - muscular chambers
        
        atria
        
        chambers that recieve blood entering the heart
        
        ventricles
        
        the chambers responsible for pumping blood out of the heart
    - - Single Circulation
        
        blood travels through the body and returns to its starting set point in a single circuit
        
        blood enters the heart collects in the atruim before going to ventricle
        
        in shark rays and bony fishes
        
        blood flows under reduced pressure organ to organ
        
        ventricle pumps blood capillary bed on the gills
        
        heart- gills- body-heart
      - Double Circulation
        
        amphibians, reptiles, mammels
        
        the right side of the heart pumps oxygenpoor blood to the capillary beds of the gas exchange tissues ( O2 in blood, CO2 out of blood)
        
        provides flow of blood to the brian muscles and other organs
        
        repiles and mammals
        
        pulmonary circut- gas exchnage is in lungs
        
        amphibians
        
        pulmocutaneous cicult- gas exchange takes place in capillaries in lungs and skin
        
        Systemic circuit
        
        the left side of the heart pumps oxygen blood from the gas exchange tissues to capillary beds in in organs and tissues thorughout the body
        
        blood pressure is higher
      - Anatomy and Heart
        
        frogs/ amphibeans have a heart with 3 chambers
        
        2 atria 1 ventricle
        
        bllod partially mixes
        
        cen send blood to skin instead of lungs when underwater
        
        Reptiles
        
        3 chamber with partial divider
        
        less mixing than amphibeans
        
        can control where blood goes
        
        crocidiles
        
        4 chambers
        
        can bypass lungs when underwater
        
        birds and mammels
        
        4 chambers
        
        no mixing at all
        
        supports high energy, very efficent
  - - - right ventricle pumps blood to lungs
        
        via Pulmonary artiers
        
        blood flows through capillary beds in the right and left lungs (in O2 out cO2)
      - oxygen rich blood returns from the lungs via pulmonary veins
        
        to the left atruim of the heart
      - the oxygen rich blood flows into the heart's left ventricle witch pumps oxygen-rich blood out to the body tissues
      - blood leaves the left ventricle via aorta
        
        aorta conveys bloof to artiers leaeding throughout body
        
        aorta leads to capillary beds
        
        desends into abdomen supplying oxygen blood to artiers
      - leading to capilary beds in the abdomal organs and legs
        
        in the beds, diffusion of O2 from the blood to tissues and of CO2
        
        capillaries rejion forming venules then veins
    - - superior vena cava
        
        inferior vena cava- drains blood from trunck and hind limbs
        
        the right atruim flows into right ventricle
    - - cardaic cylce
        
        one complete sequence of pumping and filling
        
        contraction phase
        
        systole
        
        relation phase
        
        diastole
      - cadiac output
        
        volume of blood each ventricle pups per min
        
        heart rate
        
        number of beats per min
        
        stroke volume
        
        amount of blood pumped by a ventricle in a single contraction
        
        average is 70 mL * by 72 beat per min= equal total volume of blood in body
      - Atrioventricular Valve
        
        lies between each atruim and ventricle
        
        anchored by strong fibers keep blood from flowing back onto the atria
        
        the lub sound
        
        Semilunar values
        
        2 exits of the heart
        
        where the pulmonary artery leaves the right ventricle and where the aorta leaves left ventricle
        
        the dup sound
        
        blood squirts backward
        
        heart murmur
      - SA node
        
        produce electrial impuleses
        
        can be tested through an ECG or EKG
        
        AV node
        
        signals are delayed
        
        bundel fibers
        
        bundel branches pass signlas to heart apex
        
        Purkinje fibers
        
        signals spread throughout ventrices
  - - - lumen ( cavity) lined with an endotheluim
      - capillaries- smallest blood vessel
        
        thin walls= endotheluim and basal lamina
        
        exchange of fluid
    - - outer layer-connective tissue- elastic fibers
        
        strech , recoil, and collagean- strenght
      - enfotheluim layer- smooth muscle and more elestic fibers
        
        the smooth muslce help regulate path of blood flow
      - Arterial walls are thick bc of hte high pressure blood is being pumped by the heart
      - veins do not have a thick walls bc they send back blood
        
        contain valves- jeep flow of blood
    - - high pressure to low
        
        arterial BP is highest when the heart contracts and lowest when relax
        
        Systolic pressure and diastolic pressure
        
        a giraffe Syst is 250 mm Hg, a dino would have 760mm Hg
      - Pulse
        
        the rythmic bulging of the artery wall with each heartbeat
      - vasoconstriction
        
        increases blood pressure upstream in arteries
        
        vasodilation
        
        smooth muscles relaxing
    - - lost fluid / proteins aer returned to the blood
      - recovery fluid- lymph
      - lymph nodes
        
        bodys defense
        
        body is fighting infection these multiply
  - - - Stem cell
        
        plasma- liquid matrix
        
        ions, proteins, blood cells, work together for defense/ transport
        
        inorganic salts are are essential of the blood
        
        plasma proteins act as buffers against ph changes and maintain the osomotic balnce and fluid
        
        immunoglobulins
        
        combat viruis
        
        apolipoproteins
        
        escort lipids
        
        platelets
        
        involved in clotting process
        
        erythocytes- red
        
        O2 transport, the shape increases surface area- rate of diffusion
        
        generate ATP by anaerobic metablosism
        
        hemoglobin
        
        iron protein, help transport O2
        
        leukocytes- white blood
        
        fight infections
      - Blood clotting
        
        connective tissue is damaged
        
        platelets come to collegean fibers realse a substance that makes nearby platelets sticky
        
        platelets form a plug- less blood loss
        
        reinforced by a fibrin clot
        
        thrombus
        
        clots form withing blood vessle blocking flow of blood
- - - - skin, mucous membranes
      - internal defense
        
        phagocytic cells , natural killler cells, inflammatory response
  - - - recognize specific traits of a pathogen
      - humoral response
        
        antibodies
        
        cell mediated response
        
        cytotoxix ccells
  - - - some go to thymus
    - - mature in bone marrow is a B cell
        
        cell response to an antigen
        
        antigen receptors
        
        epitope- portioin of antigen that bonds to receptor
        
        heavy cahin and light chains
        
        constant c region
      - antibody
        
        immunoglobin
  - - - 10-17 days
    - - faster, greater magnitude, more prolonged
        
        2-7 days
    - - long lives cells that warn effrctor cells if a same antigen is found
- - - - skin rashes, fever, kindey dysfunction
  - - - also effects, hormonal, nervous, and immune
        
        ppl who slept less than 7 hrs of sleep got sicker three times as often than those who averages 8 hrs
  - - - genetic defect in the protection of immune system cells
    - - exposure to chemicals
        
        cancers - hodkins disease and aids
- - - - interal enviorment of the animal offers a source of nutrients
    - - the bodys defense system which helps an animal aviod or limit infections
      - the skin - 1 defense
        
        secretions trap/kill pathogens gaurd body entrances
      - innate immunity
        
        set of immune defenses common to all animal
        
        adaptive immunity
        
        celllular defense found among verterbrates
      - Dendrite cells
        
        tissues-skin, stimulate adaptive immunity against pathogens they engulf
        
        eosinophils
        
        beneath epitheluim
        
        defend against multicellular invaders- worms, parasites
        
        natural killer cells
        
        circulate through body and detect abnormal proteins- they release chemcials that lead to cell death
        
        Mast cells
        
        connective tissue, inflammatory response
        
        inflammatory response- triggered by signaling molecules release upon injury
    - - enzyme that breaks down bacterial cell walls- chemcial barrier
      - phagocytosis
        
        break down microorganisms destroy pathogens
        
        neutrophils
        
        circulates in the blood and engulf/ destroy infecting pathogen
        
        macrophages
        
        big eaters- some stay at a certain part of body with others move