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Animal Physiology Part 2 - Coggle Diagram

- - - - Open: contains interstitial fluid called hemolymph bathes body. Heart contraction pumps hemolymph through vessels into interconnected tissues cells. Ex: Arthropods
      - Closed: Contains blood, a circulatory fluid confined to vessels. Heart(s) pump blood from large to smaller branching ones to organs. Ex: Annelids
        
        Mammalian Circulation Heart: (movement of blood through cardiovascular system) Right ventricle->Pulmonary Arteries->capillary beds-pulmonary veins->left atrium->left ventricle->body tissues (systemic circuit)->Aorta->coronary arteries->capillary beds->organs->venules->veins->superior vena cava->inferior vena cava->right atrium
    - - The Cardiac cycle refers to one complete sequence of pumping and filling with systole representing the contraction phase and diastole being the relaxation phase
        
        Atrioventricular valve: lies between atrium and ventricle preventing backflow of blood
        Semilunar valve:2 exits of heart, pushed open by pressure by contraction of ventricles
        Sinoatrial Node: Pacemaker, sets the rate & timing for all cardiac muscle cell contractions
  - - - Gills- large surface area adequate for diffusion and ventilation that allows movement of the respiratory medium over respiratory surface (moving gills through water), Countercurrent exchange of water and blood makes this system efficient---> Tracheal Systems- a network of air tubes branching throughout body that brings in air from a short distance, improving ventilation for flying insects--> Lungs-localized respiratory organs that represent an infoldings of body surfaces (amphibians, reptiles, birds)
    - - Negative Pressure Breathing): pulling air into lungs using muscle contraction. Inhalation occurs when the diaphragm contracts (moves down) and Exhalation the diaphragm relaxes and moves up
        Positive Pressure breathing: Inflating the lungs with forced air flow (amphibians)
    - - In mammals, Hemoglobin, a respiratory pigment, is contained in erythrocytes and has four subunits (polypeptide, heme group, cofactor with iron and atom in the center)
      - Gradients of partial pressure favor net diffusion of O2 into the blood & CO2 out of blood
      - Bohr Shift: low ph. decreases affinity of hemoglobin for O2, supporting cellular respiration
- - - - Invertebrate Immunity: includes the insect exoskeleton, chitin (lining intestine), and lysosome that breaks down pathogens in the digestive system, hemocytes also break down microorgisms vis phagocytosis
      - Vertebrae Immunity: Mucus membranes and skin block the entry for pathogens, and lysosome in tears/saliva create hostile environments. Cellular defenses include phagocytic immune cells (nuetrophils & macrophages) that recognize pathogens. Specialized cells include dendritic cells that dwell in tissues, Natural killer cells that circulate through the body, Eosinophils beneath the epithelium. Mast cells found in connective tissue.
  - - - B- cell recognition: B-cell antigen receptors are Y-shaped and consist of 4 polypeptide chains:2 heavy chains, two identical light chains.
        functions by lock and key fit for a particular epitope by covalent bonds and surface of binding site
      - T- cell recognition: Receptors consist of a chain, B chain link by disulfide bridge
        functions only by binding to fragmets of antigens that are displayed or presented on surface of host cells