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chapter 40, chapter 41 - Coggle Diagram

- - - - In multicellular organisms, one of many types of secreted chemicals that are formed in specialized cells, travel in body fluids, and act on specific target cells in other parts of the organism, changing the target cells' functioning.hormone
        
        A fibrous connective tissue that joins bones together at joints.ligament
        
        The ventral part of the vertebrate forebrain; functions in maintaining homeostasis, especially in coordinating the endocrine and nervous systems; secretes hormones of the posterior pituitary and releasing factors that regulate the anterior pituitary.hypothalamus
        
        The fluid filling the spaces between cells in most animals.interstitial fluid
        
        The outer covering of a mammal's body, including skin, hair, and nails, claws, or hooves.integumentary system
        
        A phagocytic cell present in many tissues that functions in innate immunity by destroying microorganisms and in acquired immunity as an antigen-presenting cell.macrophage
        
        Tissue consisting of long muscle cells that can contract, either on its own or when stimulated by nerve impulses.muscle tissue
        
        Information LinksA specialized center of body function composed of several different types of tissues.organs
        
        A form of regulation in which an end product of a process speeds up that process; in physiology, a control mechanism in which a change in a variable triggers a response that reinforces or amplifies the change.positive feedback
        
        A group of organs that work together in performing vital body functions.organ system
        
        The processes and functions of an organism.physiology
        
        A type of striated muscle that is generally responsible for the voluntary movements of the body.skeletal muscle
        
        In animals, the fast-acting internal system of communication involving sensory receptors, networks of nerve cells, and connections to muscles and glands that respond to nerve signals; functions in concert with the endocrine system to effect internal regulation and maintain homeostasis.nervous system
        
        A type of muscle lacking the striations of skeletal and cardiac muscle because of the uniform distribution of myosin filaments in the cells; responsible for involuntary body activities.smooth muscle
        
        Metabolic rate of a resting, fasting, and nonstressed ectotherm at a particular temperature.standard metabolic rate (SMR)
        
        The maintenance of internal body temperature within a tolerable range.thermoregulation
        
        A fibrous connective tissue that attaches muscle to bone.tendon
        
        In feedback regulation, a fluctuation in a variable that triggers a response.stimulus
        
        A physiological state in which activity is low and metabolism decreases.torpor
        
        An integrated group of cells with a common structure, function, or both.tissue
        
        In homeostasis, a receptor that detects a stimulus.sensor
        
        An animal for which mechanisms of homeostasis moderate internal changes in a particular variable in the face of external fluctuation of that variable.regulator
        
        (1) In cellular communication, the change in a specific cellular activity brought about by a transduced signal from outside the cell. (2) In feedback regulation, a physiological activity triggered by a change in a variable.response
        
        In homeostasis in animals, a value maintained for a particular variable, such as body temperature or solute concentration.set point
        
        The total amount of energy an animal uses in a unit of time.metabolic rate
- - - - Appendix: A finger-shaped pouch attached to the cecum that acts as a reservoir for good gut bacteria to help repopulate the gut and contains lymphoid tissue for immune support.
    - - Salivary Glands: Glands in the mouth that produce saliva containing enzymes like amylase.
    - - Sphincter: A muscular valve that controls the flow of food between different sections of the digestive tract (e.g., lower esophageal sphincter, pyloric sphincter).
  - - - Peristalsis: Wave-like muscular contractions that move food along the GI tract.
        
        Mucus: A substance produced by the gut lining that lubricates and protects the intestines.
        
        Amylase: An enzyme found in saliva and pancreatic juice that breaks down carbohydrates into sugars.
        
        Lacteal: A lymphatic vessel within each villus that absorbs digested fats.
        
        Microvillus (plural: microvilli): Microscopic projections on the surface of villi that further increase absorption capacity.
        
        Villus (plural: villi): Tiny, finger-like projections in the small intestine that increase surface area for absorption.
    - - Ingestion: The consumption of food, beginning in the mouth.
        
        Digestion: The mechanical and chemical breakdown of food into small, absorbable monomers.
        
        Pepsin: A stomach enzyme that breaks down proteins.
        
        Absorption: The process by which nutrients, water, and electrolytes pass from the lumen of the small intestine into the bloodstream or lymph.
        
        Bile: A digestive juice produced by the liver that emulsifies fats.
        
        Protease: Enzymes that break down proteins into amino acids.
- - - - Nutrition: The process of obtaining and utilizing food for energy, growth, and repair.
      - Essential Nutrient: A nutrient that cannot be synthesized by the body and must be obtained from food.
      - Essential Amino Acid: A type of protein building block that the body cannot produce.
      - Essential Fatty Acid: A type of fat necessary for health that must be obtained through diet.
      - Vitamin: An organic compound required in small amounts for metabolic processes.
      - Mineral: An inorganic element (e.g., calcium, iron) necessary for body functions.
      - Microbiome: The community of microorganisms, including bacteria, residing in the digestive tract.
      - Insulin: A hormone produced by the pancreas that regulates blood sugar.
      - Glucagon: A hormone produced by the pancreas that raises blood sugar levels.
      - Diabetes Mellitus: A metabolic disorder characterized by high blood sugar due to problems with insulin production or effectiveness
    - - Animal Feeding Strategies
        
        Herbivore: An animal that feeds on plants (e.g., cattle, deer).
        
        Carnivore: An animal that feeds on meat (e.g., lions, owls).
        
        Omnivore: An animal that feeds on both plants and animals (e.g., humans, raccoons).
        
        Bulk Feeder: Animals that eat relatively large pieces of food (e.g., humans, cows).
        
        Filter Feeder: Animals that sift small food particles from water (e.g., clams, baleen whales).
        
        Fluid Feeder: Animals that suck nutrient-rich fluids from a host (e.g., mosquitoes, aphids).
        
        Substrate Feeder: Animals that live in or on their food source (e.g., maggots).
        
        Gastrovascular Cavity: A central digestive compartment with a single opening, found in simple animals like cnidarians.