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CHAPTERS 40 - 41 - Coggle Diagram

- - - - Interstitial fluid links exchange surfaces to body cells
  - - - Epithelial tissue: covers the outside of the body and lines the organs and cavities within the body. Cells are closely packed. Functions in protection and exchange.
        
        Columnar: brick shaped cells
        
        Cuboidal: dice shaped cells
        
        Squamous: flat shaped cells
      - Connective tissue: holds many tissues and organs together and in place. Cells are sparsely packed and scattered throughout an extracellular matrix
        
        Loose connective tissue - binds epithelia to underlying tissues and holds organs in place
        
        Areola connective tissue - loosely arranged
        
        Collagenous fibers - provides strength and flexibility
        
        Elastic fibers - stretch and snap back to their original length
        
        Reticular fibers - join connective tissue to adjacent tissues
        
        Adipose connective tissue - stores fat for insulation and fuel
        
        Fibrous connective tissue
        
        Tendons - connects muscle to bone
        
        Ligaments - connects bone to bone
        
        Bone - is mineralized and forms the skeleton
        
        Blood - composed of blood cells and cell fragments in blood plasma
      - Muscle tissue - responsible for all types of body movement. Consist of actin and myosin protein filaments which enable muscle contraction.
        
        Cardiac muscle - responsible for the involuntary contraction of the heart. branching cells joined with intercalated discs
        
        Smooth muscle - responsible for involuntary body activities. Unstriated spindle shaped cells.
        
        Skeletal muscle - responsible for voluntary movement, striated with multiple nuclei.
      - Nervous tissue - function in the receipt, processing, and transmission of information
        
        Neurons- transmit nerve impulse
        
        Glial cells- supporting cells
  - - - Blood pH
      - Glucose concentration
      - Negative feedback - a control mechanism that damps a stimulus
        
        Body temperature
        
        Thermoregulation - is the process by which animals maintain an internal temperature within a normal range.
        
        Endothermic- animals generate heat by metabolism. e.g. birds
        
        Ectothermic- gain heat from external sources. e.g. fish
        
        Poikilotherm - body temperature varies with environment
        
        Homeotherm - body temperature is relatively constant
        
        Balancing heat loss and gain
        
        Evaporation
        
        Convection
        
        Radiation
        
        Conduction
        
        Heat regulation in mammals involves the integumentary system
        
        Cooling by evaporative heat loss
        
        Behavioral responses - uses behavioral responses to control body temperature. e.g. Emperor penguins
        
        Circulatory adaptations- regulates blood flow near the body surface
        
        Adjusting metabolic heat production
        
        Insulation - reduces the flow of heat between an animal's body and it's environment. e.g. skin, feathers
      - Positive feedback- amplifies a stimulus and does not play a major role in homeostasis. eg childbirth, breast feeding
      - Alterations in homeostasis
        
        Circadian rhythm - governs physiological changes that occur roughly every 24 hours
        
        Acclimatization - change in an animals physiology as it adjusts to changes in its external environment.
- - - - Fatty acids - obtained from the diet and include unsaturated fatty acids
      - Vitamins - are organic molecules required in the diet in very small amounts e.g. Vitamins A,D,E,K (nonpolar)
      - Amino acids - obtained from food in prefabricated form
      - Minerals - are simple inorganic nutrients, usually required in small amounts. e.g. iron, calcium
    - - Carnivores - mostly eat other animals
      - Omnivores - eat both animals and plants or algae
      - Herbivores - dine mainly on plants or algae
    - - Deficiencies in essential nutrients can cause deformities, disease and death. e.g. vitamin c deficiency (scurvy), iron (anemia)
      - Undernourishment - results when a diet does not provide enough chemical energy
        
        Break down its own proteins
        
        Lose muscle mass
        
        Use up stored fat and carbohydrates
        
        Suffer protein deficiency of the brain
        
        Die or suffer irreversible damage
  - - - Substrate feeders- live in or on their food source. e.g. Caterpillar
      - Fluid feeders - suck nutrient-rich fluid from a living host. e.g. Mosquitoes
      - Filter feeders - sift small food particles from the surrounding medium e.g. Baleen whales
      - Bulk feeders - eat relatively large pieces of food. e.g. snake
    - - mechanical digestion, chewing or grinding increases the surface area of food
      - Chemical digestion splits food into small molecules that can pass through membranes. The process of enzymatic hydrolysis splits bonds in molecules with the addition of water.
        
        Salivary amylase (mouth)
        
        Pancreas - produces the proteases trypsin and chymotrypsin which are activated in the lumen of the duodenum
        
        Stomach - stores food and processes it into a liquid suspension. Secretes gastric juice that mixes with food to form chyme
        
        Pepsin - is a protease which breaks peptide bonds to cleave proteins into smaller polypeptides
        
        Parietal cells - secrets hydrogen and chloride ions separately into the lumen of the stomach
        
        Chief cells - secrete inactive pepsinogen which is activated to pepsin when mixed with HCl in the stomach
        
        Mucus- protects the stomach lining from gastric juice
        
        Sphincters prevent chyme from entering the esophagus and regulate its entry into the small intestine
        
        Bile salts - facilitate the digestion of fats. Bile is made in the liver and concentrated in the gallbladder
      - Intracellular digestion - food particles are engulfed by phagocytosis and liquids by pinocytosis
      - Extracellular digestion - is the breakdown of food particles outside the cells. It occurs in compartments that are continuous with the outside of the animal's body. e.g. gastrovascular cavity in sponges
    - - Epithelial cells absorb fatty acids coated with phospholipids, cholesterol and proteins to form water soluble chylomicrons
      - Small intestine - is the longest compartment of the alimentary canal. It is the major site of nutrient absorption
        
        Duodenum - first portion of the small intestine. Chyme from the stomach mixes with digestive juices from the pancreas, liver, gallbladder. Digestion is completed here.
      - Large Intestine: Water reabsorption and feces formation
        
        Cecum aids in the fermentation of plant material and connects where the small and large intestines meet
        
        Appendix -human extension of the cecum. Plays a minor role in immunity
        
        Colon leads to the rectum and anus
        
        Rectum- feces is stored here until they can be eliminated through the anus
      - Hepatic portal vein - carries nutrient-rich blood from the capillaries of the villi to the liver, then to the heart
  - - - Helicobacter pylori - an acid-tolerant bacterium that has been found to cause stomach ulcers
      - Fecal microbial transplantation- has been used to treat diarrhea caused by the bacterium Clostridium difficile
  - - - Insulin is made by the beta cells in the pancreas. It acts on nearly all body cells to stimulate glucose uptake from blood
        
        Diabetes mellitus - caused by the deficiency of insulin or a decreased response to insulin in target tissues
        
        Type 1 diabetes - is an autoimmune disorder in which the immune system destroys the beta cells of the pancreas. It usually appears during childhood. Treated with insulin injections.
        
        Type 2 diabetes - the body resists the effect of insulin or fails to produce enough to maintain normal glucose levels
      - Glucagon is produced in the pancreas by the alpha cells. Low blood sugar stimulates the release of glucagon which regulates the breakdown of glycogen into glucose.
    - - Over nourishment can lead to obesity
      - Leptin - produced by adipose tissue also suppresses appetite and plays a role in regulating body fat levels
      - Ghrelin - a hormone secreted by the stomach wall, triggers feeling of hunger before meals