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crime & deviance - Coggle Diagram

- - - - postmodernist views on toc:
        
        globalisation creates new insecurities and produces a new mentality of 'risk consciousness', in which risk is seen as global rather than tied to a particular context
        
        e.g. increased movement of people (asylum seekers and economic migrants) has given rise in West about need to 'protect the borders'
        
        leads to intensification of social control at a national level, e.g. tightened border control
    - - 1. risk consciousness:
        
        BECK: argues that global crime has given rise to new set of anxieties or a 'risk consciousness' or 'global risk consciousness'. More people can easily move from country to country and this led to lots of migrants wanting to find work and an increase in terrorist attacks around the world. Created anxiety of 'risk consciousness' in Western countries about need to protect borders and exclude immigrants. Risk consciousness also encouraged by media as they produce moral panics
        
        in past, risk of becoming a victim of crime was thought to depend on local environment, now we are at risk of crime originating from thousands of miles away- global terrorism
        
        One result is intensification of social control at national level (UK toughened border control regulations)
        
        a growing 'risk consciousness' due to globalisation as BECK argues can be a good thing as it may encourage countries to work together to establish global and international systems of justice
        
        a risk consciousness due to globalisation and the movement of people does not just instil fear and make people police their borders and try to get rid of immigrants
      - 2. problems with policing:
        
        due to crimes being transnational, they require cooperation between many different law enforcement agencies to bring the criminals to justice
        
        also, what may be illegal in one country may not be in another and if the criminal is one country and the victim is in another it can be difficult to determine jurisdiction
        
        NEWBURN & REINER (2012): post 9/11, the UK and US governments have shared more information which has led to a better policing of terrorism
      - 3. Greater inequality has happened which leads to crime:
        
        TAYLOR: argues that globalisation has created inequality and higher rates of poverty.
        
        creates poverty abroad and in West in two ways:
        
        Globalisation has allowed capitalism to create more crime by exploiting workers abroad and creating fraud on larger scale
        
        In Western countries, manufacturing products abroad has led to a lack of jobs and opportunities for WC, which leads to crime
        
        as result, a criminal underclass has developed:
        
        TAYLOR: argues that globalisation has made it easier for elite groups and transnational corporations to move funds and profit around the world to avoid paying taxes
        
        LEFT REALISTS: LEA & YOUNG: argue that global media promote a lifestyle that is very materialistic and this leads more people to commit crime as they live in relative deprivation
      - 4. Global mafia ('McMafia'):
        
        old style criminal networks have finished
        
        GLENNY: argues we have a global organised crime network similar to a business that has a producer, distributor and consumer- like mafia but global. Started to form after collapse of Soviet Union and end of communism in 1989 and led to what he called the 'McMafia'- new form of global mafia and capitalist society in Russia which has helped to produce a global business like crime networks
        
        ways in which mafia acts like global criminal business network:
        1) Zone of production: e.g. Afghanistan & Columbia for producing herion
        2) Zone of distribution: organised gangs in places such as Mexico and Jamaica help to move drugs around world
        3) Zone of consumer: EU and Japan all have people who want more illegal drugs coming through, so more will be produced as part of this chain
        
        HOBBS & DUNNINGHAM:
        
        they say that the roots of crime are primarily still local with some global connections (glocal)
      - 5. Glocal crime networks:
        
        have developed as result of deindustrialisation - especially amongst men
        
        WINLOW: studied bouncers in Sunderland. Found that as cities in UK nw source hard labour production to other countries rather than UK due to increased globalisation, the UK has become deindustrialised. Men now looking for other ways to assert masculinity and may get involved in crime. Globalisation caused lack of jobs leading men to turn to local crime.
      - 6. Disorganised capitalism:
        
        LASH & URRY: argue that now we live in a globalised world there is increased deregulation and fewer state controls over business and finance. Meaning that there is a greater opportunity for crime to happen as it is harder to keep track-disorganised capitalism. Corporations now act transnationally, moving money, manufacturing, waste disposal and staff around world to increase profits and lower regulation
    - - could be argued has also had a very positive effect- we now have Europol a group of European police forces who work together to tackle crime across different countries
      - hyperglobalists: believe that globalisation is happening and is broadly a good thing: this is a process that is making society better
      - pessimistic globalists: argue that globalisation is happening but it is a negative feature of contemporary society: they believe that globalisation is largely westernisation or cultural imperialism leading to a homogenous global society, that destroys local cultures
      - traditionalists: unconvinced that globalised is really happening
      - impact of globalisation on crime is hard to determine as it deals with secretive and complex structures and research is dangerous to do
      - studying globalisation and crime is a distraction into the research of routine crimes which concern peoples' every day lives
      - easy to exaggerate the significance and impact of global crime
  - - - would not consider global warming or acid rain as a crime as they do not break any laws
      - easy to prosecute as it has broken a law
      - doesn't include global green crimes, just crimes that break an individual countries law
        
        there are some things which are wrong but are not treated as such as there is no law against them
    - - everyone would be a criminal if this is the case as we all create harm in some way
      - what exactly constitutes harm?
        
        we have differing opinions- impractical
      - hard to police- how do you police harm?
    - - sutton: more wealthy people can move away from areas of environmental damage therefore we are not all aware of this global risk- does not impact us all
    - - white: green criminologist argues that capitalism is main cause of green crimes as capitalism has an anthropocentric view
      - marxists: focus on green crime as an act of power; ruling class shape and define the law to benefit their own exploitative interests on the environment
      - halsey & whyte: argue green crime is caused by the dominance of capitalist ideology which prioritises economic growth over the environment (it is anthropocentric). this can be seen in the actions of individuals, companies, states and organised crime units
    - - beck: green crime affects everyone equally as we all live in a global risk society with environmental risks that humans have created themselves
      - wolf (2011): when green crime is committed the natural environment is damaged but the victims of these crimes tend to be the poor as they are unable to move away from sites which are damaged in environmental disasters
        
        1984
        
        people of Bhopal in India who were the victims of the Union Carbide gas leak (a pesticide factory leaked which poisoned the water and air)
        
        over 2000 died immediately due to leak but estimated that >8000 have died since of gas related illnesses, as many of local people were unable to move away from Bhopal after the incident as they were so poor
        
        thousands of animals also died
      - white (2003): developing countries face far greater exposure to environmental air, water and land pollution than those in the developed world
      - potter (2010): social divisions are reinforced by environmental harm, with least powerful (the poor and women) being the most likely victims of green crimes, and the bourgeoisie being most likely to commit crime
    - - recognises the growing importance of environmental issues and global risks
      - recognises human interdependence with other species and the environment, and that we depend on the environment to survive
      - the theory focuses on harm rather than criminality, meaning that green crime is accused of being engaged with a subjective interpretation rather than an objective analysis, therefore it is baised
      - positivists: want to see sociology as a science with objective definitions but we are unable to measure and test harm as it is open to interpretation
- - - - COHEN: the inclusion of other welfare + community agencies has cast the net of crime control over more people, meaning that society as a whole has a greater control over crime
  - - - people often not aware of the extent to which we are being watched
      - shift in type of power that controls us:
        
        past: sovereign power
        
        public brutal punishments that showed power of state
        
        present: disciplinary power
        
        criminals being controlled + disciplined through surveillance but using less brutal punishment
        
        people discipline + police themselves as we know we are being watched
      - logical explanation of crime prevention
      - criminals have adapted and learnt to work around it
      - may backfire: give people a reason to commit crime
      - helped reduce crime rates in most deprived areas + it is welcomed by those who live in these areas
      - surveillance has helped prevent major terrorist attacks and has helped fight against public threats to safety
      - NORRIS (2012): - found after dozens of studies worldwide that CCTV surveillance reduced crime in car parks but had not other effect on crime, suggesting that people do not alter their behaviour when they are under surveillance
      - KOSKELA (feminist): - criticise CCTV surveillance as does not prevent crime amongst women but makes women less secure as they are under the 'male gaze' of a male camera operator
      - BIGO & GUILD: - argue that surveillance has now moved into a new age, which links to beck's idea of a risk society
        
        surveillance now is used to profile people
        
        this type of surveillance is now seen as the norm of social control
        
        in USA they may refuse entry to you on basis of profiling on your ethnicity, background + class
        
        in 2016: donald trump announced he wanted to ban all muslims from entering the USA because of the risk attached according to them as a result of surveillance + profiling
  - - - conflict theories would argue that the idea of 'value consensus' overlooks conflict + inequality
      - MATTHEWS argues that prison does not stop re-offending, instead prisons become 'universities of crime' and 'expensive ways of making bad people worse'
      - in uk 2/3 prisoners offend, showing that prison does not act as a form of secondary socialisation + socialise people into a value consensus
      - GARlAND argues prison has become politicised it is seen as a good way of reintegrating people back into society- what he calls 'penal welfarism'
    - - in some cases the proletariat do get punished, e.g. stripped titles (prince andrew)
      - DOWNS argues prisons help to get the unemployed off the streets making the capitalist economy look stronger
      - MELOSSI & PARVANI support idea that prison structure is like that of factory structure, e.g. boss + workings. prison mirrors the experiences of the wc in society
    - - many offenders who serve time in prison re-offend: being exposed to being constantly monitored did not lead them to change their behaviour for better- 2/3 offend
      - surveillance is common part of society (liquid surveillance) so people are immune to it so threat of being watched makes no difference to someone's behaviour
      - LEFT REALISTS argue that punishment should not focus on more surveillance in prison but on alternative methods such as community service that allow someone to give back
    - - DAVID GARLAND
        
        the USA + UK is living in an era of 'mass incarceration'
        
        UK locks up more people than any other country in western europe
      - why is prison such as popular method of punishment + crime control?
        
        GARLAND: argues that prison has become politicised, it is seen as a good way of reintegrating people back into society- penal welfarism
        
        DOWNS: prison helps to get the unemployed off the streets making the capitalist economy look stronger
        
        since 1970's many political parties have had a 'tough on crime' (new labour) approach which has led people to vote for them as they appear to be 'taking control'
      - does prison actually control + prevent crime?
        
        ROGER MATTHEWS: prison does not stop re-offending, instead prisons become 'universities of crime' and 'expensive ways of making bad people worse'
        
        in UK 2/3 of prisoners reoffend
- - - - RIGHT REALISTS: male underclass- boredom leads to crime
      - INTERACTIONISTS: young men are labelled
      - subcultures
        
        CLOWARD & OHLIN: delinquent subcultures emerge because of locality and WC boys access to illegitimate opportunity structures. different neighbourhoods provide different criminal opportunities:
        
        criminal subculture (stable WC areas)
        
        conflict subcultures (high populated areas)
        
        retreatist subculture (increased dropouts)
        
        COHEN: men experience status frustration
        
        MERTON: young men feel strain
      - MILLER: focal concerns
        
        WC subcultures teach boys their own subcultural values (focal concerns) which provide alternative guidelines for criminal activity
        
        male WC criminal activity is a normal part of a macho lower class culture where they are socialised into focal concerns
        
        e.g. toughness, excitement + fate
      - MESSERSCHMIDT (1993): masculinity & crime
        
        masculinity is an 'accomplishment'
        
        a masculine man is highly valued and many seek to achieve this
        
        men want to achieve hegemonic masculinity which is most dominant + traditional idea of being macho
        
        e.g. strength, competitiveness, assertiveness
        
        if cannot achieve in legitimate way, may turn to crime to achieve hegemonic masculinity
        
        some men don't wish to accomplish this. alternative:
        
        subordinated masculinities: develop amongst ethnic minority groups who lack resources to accomplish HM and homosexual masculinity who have no desire to accomplish HM
        
        is masculinity an explanation of male crime or just a description of male offenders? e.g. tough, controlling
        
        he overworks concept of masculinity to explain virtually all male crimes, from joy riding to embezzlement. mass variety of crimes cannot all be justified using one explanation
        
        fails to explain why a rich MC hegemonic male will still commit corporate crime
    - - post-modern + post-industrial era
        
        now fewer manual labour jobs due to globalisation that allows men to display their masculinity
        
        men have found other ways to do so
        
        may turn to violence to do this and choose jobs that allow them an outlet of violence
        
        night-time + leisure sector: WC men who may have had manual labour job in industrial times now most commonly drawn in to night time sector (pubs, clubs). may give men access to illegal activity as well as opportunities to show their masculinity through violence
        
        bodily capital: for men to maintain masculinity in a time without manual labour jobs they must look the part and have 'bodily capital' to show their masculinity
        
        SIMON WINLOW 2001
        
        study into bouncers who worked in sutherland
        
        asserted masculinity by being a bouncer + through having bodily capital
        
        although they were legally employed they were all taking part in criminal activity (e.g. drugs through their job connections within nighttime industry)
        
        important study as shows how expression of masculinity changes with move from modern industrial society to postmodern deindustrialised global society
        
        study shows impact of globalisation + how outsourcing of traditional male jobs has led to increased crime + ways to assert masculinity through violence
        
        many do not turn to crime- deterministic
  - - - DUNCOMBE & MARSDEN: women are too busy with triple shift to commit crime
      - MCROBBIE & GARBER: bedroom culture: when young girls hang out they do so in bedrooms, whereas young boys tend to hang out on streets so more opportunities for crime
      - PARSONS: sex role theory
        
        looks to nuclear family to explain why crime happens
        
        men perform instrumental role + are largely out of home so boys lack role model during socialisation + reject feminine models of behaviour expressed by mother
        
        e.g. tenderness, gentleness
        
        boys become aggressive + anti-social, leading to delinquency
        
        COHEN: lack of adult male role model means boys more likely to turn to male street gangs as source of masculine identity. the subcultural groups offer them status by taking risks + being tough
        
        WALKLATE (2003): sex role theory makes large biological assumptions. parsons assumes that because women have biological capacity to bear children they are best suited to the expressive role.
      - HEIDENSOHN: control theories
        
        women controlled in three ways:
        
        in home (domestic labour, childcare- so less time to commit crimes)
        
        in public (fear of violence means can't go certain places- CSEW: 54% women avoided going out after dark)
        
        in employment (glass ceiling, denied opportunities due to maternity leave, sexual harassment,)
        
        all of these put extra pressure on women to conform
        
        highlights many patriarchal controls that help prevent women from deviating
        
        sees women's behaviour as determined by external forces + underplays value of free will + choice in offending
        
        laws (e.g. sex discrimination act 1975) have helped women to reach high positions in work
        
        women committing utilitarian + non utilitarian crime has increased since the sexual revolution of 1960's so women are not as controlled as heidensohn suggests
    - - yes: chivalry thesis
        
        women are treated more leniently than men by the CJS due to this being heavily male dominated
        
        means police may be more likely to caution rather than charge women + courts more inclined to acquit or impose more lenient sentences
        
        CAMPBELL (1981) carried out self-report studies + found that women most likely to be cautioned rather than prosecuted + a woman is almost as likely to be the perpetrator of a crime as a man
        
        STEWART (2006): found magistrates perceptions of female defendants characters were based on stereotypical gender roles. women who do not conform to accepted standards of monogamous heterosexuality + mother are punished more harshly
        
        lots of CJS today are women so it is not a case of men treating women more leniently
        
        chivalry is dead- many men today do not have a chivalrous attitude to women
      - no: SMART: doubly deviant
        
        feminist
        
        women treated more harshly due to CJS being patriarchal
        
        women seen as doubly deviant as they:
        
        deviated away from social norms by breaking law
        
        deviated away from gender norms which state how women should behave
        
        case study: VANESSA GEORGE
        
        2009: 10 year sentence
        
        female paedophile ring: 5 adults
        
        nursery: images of up to 64 children
        
        evidence of double deviance, shocking as she's a woman
    - - CARLEN: gender + class deals
        
        WC comen commit crime out of rational choice if they do not have the class deal + gender deal
        
        class deal: women who work will be offered material rewards with decent standard of living + leisure opportunities
        
        gender deal: patriarchal ideology promises women material + emotional rewards from family life if they conform to gender roles
        
        if these rewards not available or not worth effort, crime becomes more likely
        
        conducted unstructured interviews with 39 WC women aged 15-46 who were convicted of range of offences + found for the women she interviewed, crime appeared to be a rational choice. gender deal + class deal are unobtainable and leads to criminal activity
        
        shows how failure of patriarchal society to deliver the promised 'deals' to some women removes control that prevent them from offending
        
        many women now work, are independent + so don't look for class or gender deal, 67% women are in work + can economically provide for themselves
        
        romantacises WC female crime as something that is noble for them to do to improve their situation if they do not have class or gender deal rather than seeing this behaviour as wrong + punishable
        
        carlen's sample used was small, and so may be unrepresentative- largely focused on WC offenders
      - ADLER: liberation theory
        
        women more free + patriarchy has lessened because of rise of feminism so may commit more crime
        
        women more independent and some forms of 'traditional social control' are weakening, particularly among young women so they adopt behaviour traditionally associated with young men + illegitimate activity (crime)
        women have greater opportunities to commit serious white collar crimes
        
        draws attention to importance of investigated relationship between changes in women's position + changes in patterns of female offending
        
        female crime rate began to rise in 1950s, long before the women's liberation movement which began in late 1960s
        
        LAIDLER & HUNT (2001): found that female gang members in USA expected to conform to traditional gender roles in same way that non-deviant girls are
        
        CHESNEY-LIND: most female criminals are WC- in USA, poor + marginalised women more likely to commit crime than liberated women
        
        CONTROL THEORISTS: overstates the extent to which women have become liberated + are now able to engage in crime
      - the criminalisation of females
        
        COHEN: net widening: concluded that in reality, there has been no change in violent crimes committed by women. rise in arrests due to the CJS arresting + prosecuting women for less serious forms of crimes than they previously had
        
        STEFFENSMEIER & SCHWARTZ (2009): police stats on female criminality did not match the data found in victim surveys.
        
        BURMAN & BATCHELOR (2009): found that professionals (e.g. judges, probation officers) were influenced by media stereotypes + moral panics of a violent 'ladette' female + idea that female behaviour is getting worse
        
        overall effect is self-fulfilling prophecy
        
        CHESNEY-LIND (2006) argues that policy of mandatory arrests for domestic violence has led to steep rise in female violence statistics. when a couple argues/fights, both will be arrested even though woman is usually the victim.
        
        STEFFENSMEIER ET AL (2005) found that media-driven moral panics about girls affected sentencing decisions.
- - - - case-study: STEPHEN LAWRENCE 1993
        
        killed in racial attack
        
        police took long time to convict Stephen's murderers even though there was good evidence to prosecute his killers
        
        THE MACPHERSON REPORT 1999: concluded there was institutionalised racism in Met Police
        
        racist attitudes of police themselves led to lack of follow up on this case + being unwilling to see Stephen as victim of a crime
      - WADDINGTON 2004
        
        refutes claim that police are racist
        
        watched videos of police stopping + searching
        
        high no. ethnic minorities were stopped but this not due to racial prejudice or discrimination but it was realistic reflection of types of people who were on streets in high crime areas
    - - since 1993 rates of asian offending has risen too
        
        due to 9/11 many asians now racially stereotyped through statistical surveillance as terrorists by police + public
        
        suggests asians don't commit more crime but are stereotyped by police
      - underestimation of police racism: critics argue they downplay institutional racism in police force which affects statistics. they focus too much on black criminality, neglecting fact that bme often have higher chance of being victim of crime. over-emphasise marginalisation: not all ethnic minorities in similar positions turn to crime, questioning if these factors are direct causes.
    - - GILROY 1982
        
        BME commit no more crime than others but there is a perception that they do:
        
        myth of black criminology
        
        however when they do, ethnic minorities commit crimes as they are fighting against racism + oppression and are anti-colonial (against white rule that happened in past)
        
        it is because they have been victim of racism that BME respond with crime
        
        this political resistance + fighting back has been criminalised by british government + that is why statistics are high for BME offending
        
        can't fight for own rights without being criminalised
        
        LEA & YOUNG: first generation of immigrants were very law abiding, so unlikely to pass down anti-colonial opinions. Most crime is intra-ethnic so crime by ethnic minorities can't be seen as anti-colonial + resisting oppression from white people. romanticizes the criminals as revolutionary + fighting against oppression. asian crime rate similar or lower than whites which would mean police only racist towards blacks which is unlikely.
        
        most crime is reported to police not uncovered by them to it is difficult to suggest racism within police itself as cause of higher bme criminal statistics
      - HALL ET AL 1979
        
        was moral panic in 1970's about black men + mugging spread by media
        
        because capitalism was in crisis + the powerful used this story of black men causing crime to distract people form the problems of capitalism
        
        scapegoat
        
        black people were not more criminal that any other ethnic group, but were scapegoated + blamed for crime in media
        
        this led to increase in black men being unable to get jobs + so made them more likely to turn to crime
        
        DOWNES & ROCK 2011: point out that they claim that black men are both more criminal + less criminal. they don't explain how the moral panic was created or give evidence that capitalism was behind it. also does not explain how capitalism was in crisis which led to black men being used as scapegoat.
    - - family
        
        NEW RIGHT: growing rate of lone-parent family structure leads to inadequate socialisation, so children not taught the correct norms + values of society- so not taught crime is immoral. BME have high rate of lone parent families which are usually female-headed. may explain why BME are more likely to turn to crime.
        
        FUNCTIONALIST: less primary + secondary socialisation
        
        MARXIST: BME more likely to be WC therefore may choose to rebel against capitalist leaders
        
        pre-determines all lone-parent families will inadequately socialise their children
        
        many people with male-figure head will still turn to crime, and thus it is too generalising to argue it only those without such that turn to criminal activity
      - education
        
        those who perform poorly in education may find it hard to find a legitimate + sufficiently well-paid job, therefore may either turn to illegal means of employment (drug trade) or turn to crime due to relative deprivation
        
        could explain why BME may be more criminal because black caribbean ethnicity are one of worst performing for educational achievement as well as appearing high on crime statistics
        
        ethnocentric curriculum can make BME feel marginalised + turn to antisocial behaviour
        
        language barrier in exams leads to sense of failure + a need to find status in other ways
        
        more likely to experience racism + labelling that can lead to self-fulfilling prophecy and may turn to crime.
        
        generalises all black people will turn to crime if they perform poorly in education
        
        black african ethnicities perform higher than average in education + still appear high on crime statistics
        
        does not account for asian ethnicities who are one of the highest achieving ethnicities but also appear high on crime stats
- - - - SURETTE
        
        the media distorts our view of law as they report crime in a way that is the opposite of reality
        
        the media shows the opposite of what is actually happening in the official statistics
        
        called the 'law of opposites'
        
        examples:
        
        violence, drugs + sex crime are over represented
        
        property crimes under-represented
        
        CRIME SURVEY OF ENGLAND + WALES:
        
        surveys show most people base their understanding of crime on what they see in the media, including crime fiction rather than their own experience
        
        FLATLEY: this creates a hyper-reality of crime. crime has been falling between 1995-2010, but 3/4 of population thought crime was rising as they base their views on the media
      - GREER & REINER:
        
        media distorts our view on crime as they only choose to report or make programmes about crime that is considered newsworthy + will excite + capture the imagination of the public
        
        if a crime meets certain news values that the media looks for, then it is worth reporting or making programmes/books about on
        
        this means we are not aware of some crimes as they are not worth reporting on as they do not meet certain news values
        
        what sort of crimes have a dramatic impact + would grab people's attention?
        
        crimes involving children (as victims or perpetrators)
        
        horrific crimes (rape, murder)
        
        political crime (party-gate)
        
        JEWKE'S list of new values which influence what the media report on (based on green & rainer's work):
        
        threshold
        
        events have to be considered significant enough to be in the news
        
        celebrity or high-status people
        
        crime involving celebs/'important' people, as victims or offenders, is seen as more newsworthy than that involving ordinary people
        
        children
        
        children as offenders or victims of crime
        
        case-studies of famous crimes reported by the media
        
        sexual assaults + paedophilic acts by celebrity *Jimmy Saville
        
        The Murder of Jamie Bulger (1993) by 10-year-olds robert thompson + jon venables
        
        The Hillsborough Disaster (1989): when police mismanaged a crowd, leading to a human crush where 96 liverpool fans died at football match
    - - 1. the media are moral entrepreneurs
        
        the media have the power to label + define who is criminal by targeting certain groups
        
        can lead to self fulfilling prophecy + deviancy amplification
        
        deterministic
        
        THORNTON & MCROBBIE: 24 hour news- no time for moral panic
        
        SPARKS: many media effects studies ignore meanings that viewers give to media violence- may young children are media literate
        
        risk of being labelled negatively may serve as a deterrent (if a celebrity)
      - 2. the media causes moral panics which then leads to deviancy amplification
        
        moral panics: media can cause a panic about certain crimes
        
        HALL: studied a moral panic into black muggers in 1970's which leads to a fear of young black men + then further deviancy amplification by them
        
        COHEN: media created a panic about two rival gangs- mods + rockers in the 1960's which saw them labelled as folk-devils (people who are considered a threat to society). labelling of the mods + rockers then led to further deviancy amplification
        
        MUNICE: moral panic theory has drawn our attention to role + power of media in defining normal + deviant behaviour
        
        BECK: 'global risk society': now we live in a 'risk society' there are now so many risks + uncertainties that many of things that used to generate moral panics have become a part of normal life
        
        MCROBBIE & THORNTON (1995): suggests idea of moral panics is now outdated because we have 25hr news so not possible to generate a moral panic as there are constant news stories to replace the panic. so many types of media (e.g. social media, news) that it is hard to generate a panic across all of them. so many opinions in media that people are learning not to trust it + may nt necessarily believe what they hear
      - 3. the media helps to increase a sense of relative deprivation which leads to crime
        
        LEFT REALISTS: LEA & YOUNG: media depicts a very glamorous lifestyle which makes people want to commit crime as they are relatively deprived
        
        links to functionalist MERTON'S strain theory + YOUNG'S bulimic society
      - 4. the media depict crime as something to consume (a commodity)
        
        FENWICK & HAYWARD: crime is marketed to young people 'as romantic, exciting, cool + a fashionable symbol'
        
        crime seen as a cool commodity to consume
        
        car adverts featuring graffiti + joyriding or buying perfumes in the fashion industry called 'poison' or 'opium' all play a part in making crime something cool to consume which can lead to criminal behaviour
        
        only fashionable in WC culture
      - 5. new forms of media such as the internet have lead to cybercrime
        
        JEWKES: internet creates opportunities to commit conventional crimes + new types of crime
        
        e.g. cyber trespass (hacking + spreading computer viruses, cyber deception + theft such as identity theft, cyber-pornography, cyber violence)
        
        JEWKES admits new media such as internet has also enabled us to stop crime as it has enhanced communication
      - COHEN: how does media cause a moral panic?
        
        symbolisation
        
        media creates symbols for the 'folk devils' which are all negatively labelled
        
        e.g. by associating them with certain clothing, hair styles, music etc
        
        exaggeration + distortion
        
        media exaggerates the numbers involved + the extent of the violence + damage
        
        usually done through dramatic headlines
        
        prediction
        
        media regularly assumes + predicts further violence + conflict would occur
        
        COHEN'S mods + rockers
        
        examined conflict between two groups of WC teenagers in 1960's
        
        although disorder was relatively minor, the media over-reacted
        
        mods wore smart dress + rode scooters
        
        rockers wore leather jackets + rode motorbikes
        
        groups created disorder by smashing windows + throwing stones
      - FELSON: argues that media reporting reinforces certain fallacies about crime
        
        e.g. age fallacy, class fallacy, ingenuity fallacy
      - DITTON & DUFFY: 46% media about violent sex crimes even though they only made up 3% crimes reported by police