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The Structure and Function of Large Biological Molecules - Coggle Diagram
The Structure and Function of Large Biological Molecules
Macromolecules and Polymers
Synthesis and Breakdown
Hydrolysis: A reaction that is essentially the reverse of the dehydration reaction.
Dehydration Reaction: Occurs when two monomers bond together through the loss of a water molecule.
Enzymes: Are specialized macromolecules that speed up chemical reactions such as those that make or break down polymers
Definitions: 1. Macromolecules: These are considered large, complex molecules essential for life. This includes carbohydrates, proteins, and nucleic acids. 2. Polymers: These are considered large molecules composed of repeating subunits. These are linked together by covalent bonds, forming long chain-like structures. 3. Monomers: These are the fundamental subunits that serve as the building blocks of polymers
Carbohydrates
Sugars:
Monosaccharides: These are simple sugars and the most basic form of carbohydrates. Usually have molecular formulas that are multiples of the unit CH2O. Example: The glucose formula is C6H10)6
Disaccharides: Formed by two monosaccharides joined by a glycosidic linkage. Examples: Maltose ( two glucose molecules ). Sucrose ( Glucose and Fructose ), Lactose ( Glucose and Glactose ).
Polysaccharides: These are complex carbohydrates composed of many sugar units.
Storage Polysaccharides
Storage Polysaccharides: Are macromolecules that store sugars for later use. In plants, starch is the primary storage polysaccharide, consisting of glucose monomers. As humans, this is stored as glycogen, a polysaccharide similar to amylopectin but more extensively branched. Glycogen is stored mainly in liver and muscle cells and is broken down to release glucose when energy is required.
Structural Polysaccharides
Provides structural support. This includes Cellulose, which is a key structural polysaccharide in a plant cell wall, composed of unbranched chains of glucose. This is also considered an organic compound. Cellulose is known as "insoluble fiber", which aids digestion by stimulating mucus secretion in the digestive tract, helping food pass smoothly.
Chitin is another structural polysaccharide found in the exoskeleton of arthropods.
Lipids
Lipids: are a diverse group of hydrophobic molecules. This is because they don't mix well with water. Due to lipids being hydrophobic, their structure mostly consists of hydrocarbon regions with nonpolar C---H bonds.
Fats and Trans Fats: Fats are constructed from two types of smaller molecules: Glycerol and fatty acids.
Trans Fat: They are unsaturated fats that are artificially created during the hydrogenation of oils. An example of trans fat is vegetable oil commonly found in baked goods and processed foods, due to its ability to enhance texture and shelf life.
Fatty Acid: Are acids that are long carbon chains with a carboxyl group at one end. This includes Saturated and unsaturated fatty acids.
Saturated Fatty Acids have no double bonds between carbon atoms, and hydrogen chains are straight, allowing tight packing. Solid at room temperature (e.g. butter)
Unsaturated Fatty Acids: One or more double bonds, usually cis, causing kinks. Cannot pack together tightly, remaining a liquid at room temperature. Such as olive oil.
Triacylglycerol: A three-carbon alcohol with a hydroxyl group attached to each carbon. This is also linked to three fatty acids
Phospholipids: These are essential components of cell memebranes, forming a barrier that separates the cell from its environment. The structure of the phospholipids includes a hydrophobic head that is composed of a phosphate group and often a small or polar molecule like choline. Also, hydrophilic talls: this includes two fatty acid chains that avoid water.
Steroids:These are characterized by a structure of four fused carbon rings. Cholesterol is also a type of steroid, which is essential for cell membranes and is a precursor for other steroids. Including sex hormones like testosterone and estradiol.
Proteins
Catalysts: Substances that speed up chemical reactions without being consumed in the process. They lower the activation energy required for reactions, allowing them to proceed more quickly and efficiently.
Proteins are vital for nearly every function in living organisms. They make up more than 50% of the dry mass of most cells and are involved in a wide range of activities.
Storage proteins: Store amino acids, like casein in milk. Transport Proteins: Move substances across cell membranes, such as hemoglobin transporting oxygen. Structural Proteins: Provide support, such as collagen in connective tissues. Receptor Proteins: Respond to chemical stimuli, such as nerve cell receptors.
Nucleic Acids
Roles
There are two types of nucleic acids. Deoxyribonucleic acids are acids, which refer to DNA, and Ribonucleic Acid, which refers to RNA. The sugar found in DNA is called deoxyribose. The sugar found in RNA is ribose.
Gene Expression is the process in which information from a gene is used to synthesize a functional gene product, typically a protein or RNA. Transcription occurs in the nucleus, where the DNA sequence is transcribed to produce messenger RNA. RNA polymerase catalyzes this process, linking RNA nucleotides complementary to the DNA template. Translation: the mRNA exits the nucleus and enters the cytoplasm, where it is translated into protein. Ribosomes read the mRNA sequence and assemble a polypeptide chain by linking amino acids in the order specified by the mRNA. Lastly, this is when the protein processing occurs.
Steps during Gene Expression:
Chromatin Modification: DNA must be unpacked to be transcribed.
Transcription: Produces RNA from DNA.
RNA processing: Introns are removed, and a cap and tail are added.
Translation: mRNA is translated into a protein.
Components
Polynucleotides
These are polymers that make up nucleic acids such as DNA and RNA. Each polynucleotide consists of monomers called nucleotides.
Nucleotides:
These are considered the building blocks of nucleic acids. Each nucleotide is composed of three parts.
Five-carbon Sugar. This includes either DNA or RNA.
Nitrogenous Base. This includes either Pyrimidines or Purines.
Phosphate Group: One of the three phosphate groups are attached to the sugar.
Pyrimidines and Purines: Pyrimidines and Purines are the two main nitrogenous bases. Pyrimidines include ( Cytosine, thymine, and uracil ). Purines include ( Adenine and Guanine )
Structures: The
The DNA backbones run in opposite 5'---- 3' directions from one another; the arrangement is referred to as antiparallel. DNA pairs up and forms hydrogen bonds, such as Adenine, Thymine, Guanine, and Cytosine. Compared to RNA Thymine is replaced with uracil, so A and U pair up.
Geonomics and Proteomics
Proteomics
A similar analysis of large sets of proteins including their sequence.
Proteomics plays a big part in Evolutionary and systems biology, and medical science. In systems biology, researchers use proteomics to help us understand cellular functions. As for medical science, it contributes to personalized medicine by analyzing protein expressions related to diseases.
Geonomics
Analyzes large sets of genes or even comparing whole genomes of different species.
In today's world geonomics plays a big role in medical science. This helps us aid in identifying genetic bases for disease, enabling personalized medicine approaches, such as targeted cancer treatments.
Bioinformatics
Combines biology, computer science, and information technology to analyze and interpret biological data. Specifically, genomic data.
Bioinformatics helps in medicine by analyzing genetic information to tailor treatments for individuals. In DNA and Forensics, it is used to trace genetic ancestry and, in forensic science, to analyze DNA evidence from crime scenes.