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Phonetics - Coggle Diagram

- - - - They include the oldest and simplest methods of phonetic investigation: sensory analysis and direct observation. These consist in observing and fixing the movements and positions of one’s own or other people’s organs of speech in the production of various speech sounds, as well as in analyzing and comparing one’s own articulatory and auditory impressions.
    - - They involve the use of various instrumental techniques like palatography, laryngoscopy, X-ray photography, electromyography, etc. The use of the data of instrumental analysis gives a detailed study of different phonetic phenomena and articulatory processes.
- - - - Discrete or separate phonemes. There are 44 phonemes
      - Distribution of phonemes
        
        By the distribution we mean the usage of particular phonemes in certain positions in the world. The laws of destribution are different in different languages.
      - Transition of phonemes
        
        The V.V. - vowel influences vowel
        
        The V.C. - consonant influences vowel
        
        The C.V. - vowel influences consonant
        
        The C.C. - consonant influences consonant
  - - - one vertical bar - longer pause between main and subordinate clauses
      - two vertical bars - denote long pause which occurs at the end of the sentence
      - a wavy line - short pause between parts of sentence
      - three vertical bars - a very long pause at the end of a paragraph
    - - The rising tone, being represented in speech by its high rising and low rising allotones, is
        used (1) to make the utterance sound non-final and non-categoric, as well as (2) to ask for information.
      - The rising-falling tone is used to convey cordiality or mockery.
      - The falling-rising tone, which expresses more information than the verbal context (both divided and undivided allotones), is used to convey implication.
      - The rising-falling-rising tone manifests itself in a very emotional speech as a means of intensification, or highlighting the utterance meaning, as well as a to indicate the speaker’s emotional state.
      - The falling tone is used to state facts (positive or negative) and to make utterances sound categoric and final;
      - level tone - tail, descending, the syllables (or one syllable) that follow the nucleus.
    - - Constitutive
        
        characterizes intonation as an organizing mechanism. On the one hand, it delimitates texts into intonation groups with a certain structure; on the other hand, it integrates intonation groups when forming a complete text.
      - Distinctive
        
        helps to distinguish communicative types of sentences, the actual meaning of a sentence, the speaker’s attitude to its contents and the style of the utterance.
      - There also following functions
        
        the grammatical function, which helps to identify certain grammatical structures in oral speech (statement, question, exclamation, command);
        
        the informational function, which draws the listener’s attention to the new information in an utterance with the help of the most prominent tone;
        
        the emotional function, which serves to express attitudinal meaning (interest, impatience, delight, irony, shock, anger, etc.);
        
        the textual function, which helps to contrast and organize meaningful units larger than the sentence;
        
        the psychological function, which splits stretches of speech into units that are easier to perceive and memorize;
        
        the indexical function, which serves an important marker of personal or social identity with the help of distinctive prosodic features
  - - - The constitutive function
        
        Word stress arranges syllables in words
      - The distinctive function
        
        can be traced in the oppositions of words consisting of the same morphemes, the meaning of which is differentiated by word stress
      - The recognitive function
        
        word stress enables a person to identify a succession of syllables as a definite accentual pattern of a word.
  - - - 1) a minimum syllable could be a single vowel in isolation
      - 2) a syllable with an onset
      - 3) a syllable may have no onset but a coda
      - 4) a syllable with an onset and a coda
    - - The constitutive function
        
        lies in its ability to be a word
        or a part of it. It this respect the syllable exercises the connection of
        smaller and greater language units.
      - The distinctive function
        
        lies in its ability to differentiate words and word-forms taken separately or in combinations.
      - The identificatory function
        
        The listener’s ability to perceive and identify the exact meaning of a
        word or a combination of words depends on the speaker’s ability to establish the correct syllabic boundary
- - - - The representatives of Moscow phonological school (R.I. Avanesov, P.S. Kuznetsov, A.A. Reformatsky, and others) support the theory of
        morphological neutralization of phonemes. They state that a phoneme
        may lose one or more of its distinctive features in a weak position within
        a morpheme. Thus phonemic alternations within one and the same unit
        are connected with morphology.
    - - The representatives of Leningrad (St. Petersburg) phonological school (L.V. Shcherba, L.R. Zinder, M.I. Matusevich, and others) support another view and advocate the autonomy of the phoneme and its
        independence from the morpheme. They state that allomorphs of a single morpheme may differ from each other on the synchronic level not only in their allophonic, but also in their phonemic composition. The content of
        the morpheme is constant. Speech sounds in phonologically neutral positions belong to that phoneme with whose principal variant they completely or nearly coincide.
  - - - According to the representatives of Prague phonological school (N.S. Trubetzkoy, R. Jacobson, and others), there are types of units higher and broader than phonemes: the so-called ‘archiphonemes’. An archiphoneme represents a combination of distinctive features common to two different phonemes excluding their specific features. So in ‘кот — код’ the sound in question is neither [т] nor [д] but an abstract unit combining their voiceless fortis and voiced-lenis characteristics and making them similar in neutral position