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- - - - "Andean mineworkers, meanwhile, continue to labor inside the Cerro Rico day and night, cheeks jammed with coca leaves and lunges full of silica dust" (Potosí: The Silver City that Changed the World 2)
        
        Workers have tough conditions, meanwhile owners/imperialists sit back and reap the benefits of laborers' hard work. This leads to a reinforcing feedback loop where the rich get richer, and the poor stay the same while working very hard. They become dependent on the wages from this tough work.
    - - "Imperialist capital captures markets from within, appropriating the key sectors of local industry: it conquers or constructs the decisive strongholds from which to control the rest."
        
        This quote shows how powers from Europe and the United States came in to Potosi, taking advantage of the weaker economic system in place. These powers set up a system that primarily benefits a select few.
        
        Harsh realities of colonial power overreach
      - Dependency theory
      - "Unequal exchange functions as before: hunger wages in Latin America help finance high salaries in the United States and Europe"
        
        This quote clearly depicts the dependency theory— the American and European elite pay themselves well, but pay the workers of Potosi poorly, which perpetuates inequality throughout Latin America and world.
    - - "Do not take the silver from this mountain. It is for other masters" (Pg 24)
        
        This shows that the Cerro Rico's silver is not for the nearby residents, but rather it is for colonials that have taken over. Again this is a prime example of colonial exploitation and inequality in Latin America.
  - - - Talks about racial and cultural mixing; mestizos are called to create a balanced and harmonious civilization. Take the advantages of each race and combine to one "fifth race". Primarily talks about the white race being the most dominant in this pursuit.
        
        "... a fifth race, a universal race that is
        the fruit of all earlier races and surmounts all that is past."
    - - Framed as "unity" but really is just colonial erasure of indigenous and African backgrounds.
  - - - Primary Sources
        
        4 Jun 1785. Ducrot, manager of the Cabeuil estate, to Morange & Co
        
        Slaves threatened to "put [Ducrot] out like a dog" (Ducrot)
        
        This assertiveness and new confidence of the slaves shows a change in power dynamics
        
        “It is fortunate that this is happening at a time when there is very little to do” (Ducrot).
        
        This blatant disregard for the slaves' wellbeing shows how property managers (white people) thought so little of slaves (black people).
        
        "The Uprising Begins"
        
        "Under interrogation he stated that all the driver, coachmen, domestic servants, and trusted slaves of the neighboring plantations and surrounding districts had formed a plot to set fire to the plantations and kill all the whites". (Pg 80)
        
        This plan shows how slaves have gained a collective identity and motive to overthrow their colonial rulers.
  - - - Dore argues that the narrative of progress in 19th century and in general must be disputed. When it comes to gender relations, history does not align with progress
        
        Secularization does not guarantee gains for women's rights; some rights were better before.
        Example: secularization of marriage. Catholic church made adultery wrong for both, secularization had made adultery OK for males and capital punishment for females
    - - Bastidas is a confident, powerful, stern, intense woman leader in the Tupac rebellion. She marks an early example of power held by Latin American women.
        
        Witnesses describe her as "monstrous" (pg 37) and also that one could see "more rebelliousness in her than her husband so that she was more terrible than him" (pg 41).
        
        This contrast shows how colonial archives punished women who stepped outside their prescribed roles. Bastidas was demonized, while her husband’s similar actions were normalized through patriarchal expectations. Her “monstrosity” is less about her deeds than about the threat she posed to gender hierarchies. Bastidas is a strong foundation for more women to challenge gender roles within their culture moving forward.
    - - Select Primary Sources: Documents found in The Tupac Amaru and Catarista Rebellions: An Anthology of Sources.
        
        "Micaela Bastidas Admonishes Her Husband, Tupac Amaru" - Bastidas says "Chepe: you will kill me with grief... I do not have any more patience..." (pg 109) Bastidas gives a strong opinion to her husband, challenging traditional gender roles
  - - - "During the export years, every Latin American government had made it a tenet of
        national policy to seek European immigration and “whiten” their national populations" (Page 1)
        
        This shows how many Latin American countries have historically been biased towards the white race, largely due to European influence. The goal of these initiatives was to make blackness go away through mixing.
- - - - Gender roles
        
        Bad Bunny's Camp
        
        Luis Rivera Figueroa, “Bad Bunny’s Transgressive Gender Performativity: Camp
        Aesthetics and Hegemonic Masculinities in Early Latin Trap,” Journal of Latin American
        Communication Research, 2020.
        
        "Bad Bunny’s star image became a representation of alternative forms of masculinity"
        
        Bad Bunny uses camp to display hyper-masculine and hyper-feminine roles in different performances, using these performances and music videos to challenge social norms and poke fun at gender stereotypes. He does this at times wearing nice sunglasses and jewelry for masculine looks, but can also be seen with fake breast implants and painted nails to depict feminine looks. Through all of this, Bad Bunny shows how gender is not one set or defined concept; rather, it is fluid and can be defined in various ways in accordance with an individual's preferences.
        
        Nathian Shae Rodriguez, “The Machismo Conflict of Bad Bunny’s Yo Perreo Sola in Reggaetón,” Rhetoric of Masculinity: Male Body Image, Media, and Gender Role Stress/Conflict, London: Lexington, 2022.
        
        "He also is well known for his nail art and renouncement of gender norms, particularly in fashion. Bad Bunny openly has called out
        homophobia and preconceived notions on how women should look, dress, and act, redefining the masculine genre of reggaetón with his emotional vulnerability in lyrics that highlight depression, and mental illness (Cepeda, 2018)."
        
        “Yo Perreo Sola,” Bad Bunny
        
        Camp: Bad Bunny wearing dress, breast implants, bright pink colors, etc.
        
        “I like it,” Cardi B. ft. Bad Bunny and J. Balvin
        
        The performances and setting of this music video reframes the barrio as a vibrant, colorful, and joyful community with smiling people, well kept/thriving food stands, etc. rather than an impoverished or criminalized community.
        
        This reverses colonial and racial stereotypes that Puerto Rico, among other Latin American countries, are crime-ridden and deficient locations. Rather, they are a place of cultural abundance and pride.
        
        Combination of English and Spanish shows how Latinx identity can be seen in multiple languages and is not confined to one set colonial language.
        
        Source from essay:
        Chris Molanphy from Slate says that I Like It embodies pan‑Latinx identity by fusing artists of Dominican‑Trinidadian, Puerto Rican, and Colombian descent.
        
        This racial fusion shows how reggaeton is not just a music genre for poor people in Puerto Rico; but rather. it is a type of music that transcends borders and can be appreciated by people all over Latin America and the world. This idea of the global stage challenges colonial beliefs of white people having the strongest global reach.
        
        Cardi B as lead with Bad Bunny & J Balvin as her two male backups (inferiors)
        
        “Chambea” Bad Bunny
        
        Use of Puerto Rican slang to resist colonial language hierarchies
        
        Plays with ideas of masculinity & femininity with Bad Bunny wearing a suit and stylish glasses with women background dancers (all masculine features), but the suit is covered in floral design (which is typically regarded to as more feminine).
        
        "Ya no te quedan bala" shows that Bad Bunny's enemies (represented as "cabrón" here) have "no bullets left". This "checkmate" in a sense can be seen as resistance against attacking forces— a theme we have constantly seen with Latin Americans against colonial powers, stereotypes, beliefs, etc.
      - Women's strength
        
        Defying traditional gender roles/power dynamics
        
        English-language transcript of podcast, “Hasta Abajo”/”Getting Down”
        
        Ivy Queen: "I based everything on defending women." (Getting Down Translation)
        
        Women are strong and need to pushback against men. Women are allowed to say no.
        
        “Bichota” – Karol G
        
        Confident female leads throughout the video, shows women's power. Challenges traditional reggaeton norms with male leads and female backup dancers (often in revealing clothing). This redefines what reggaeton stars can look like.
      - “Yo Quiero Bailar” – Ivy Queen
        
        Ivy Queen shows more of a defensive form of femininity against masculine norms
        
        Wagging her finger at the man, indicating that no, dancing does not mean consent.
        
        Traditionally in reggaeton, men were in a position of power and thus often had control over women. These power dynamics show lingering colonial influence, but artists like Ivy Queen challenge the harsh realities of this colonial power overreach.
      - “ Camgirl“ Villano Antillano
        
        This shows how reggaetons gendered and racialized history with male dominance and hypersexualization is challenged by Antillano's fluid identity.
        
        Racial Pride
        
        The music video challenges traditional binaries by introducing a transgender identity into a genre long characterized by patriarchal and colonial legacies of male dominance.
    - - This was a main contributor to the "Latin explosion", prompting people to seek out Latin music more than ever
  - - - Reggaetón became a huge part of Latin American identity and history. It is a mixture between reggae and rap. This shows its cultural and racial beginnings.
      - The Spanish language in the genre is incredibly important. Putting it in English would be the "kiss of death".
      - Puerto Rican national pride through music
    - - "Given this context, Benito's refusal to speak a language other than his own is a highly political move".
        
        Outside quote I found: "English is not my first language. But it's OK, it's not America's first language, either"
  - - - Rosalía is from Spain, and a lot of her music / accompanying music videos receive public backlash as Reggaeton mostly stemmed as a source of Puerto Rican national pride; not Spanish.
        
        Rosalia continues to produce music and ignore critics, showing her defiance against social expectations.
        
        "It’s About Time We Talk About Rosalía & Latinidad"
        
        Reddit thread: “Is Rosalia doing it right or is she colonizing?”
        
        Rosalia isn't Latina; She is a Spaniard. Therefore she should not be referred to as Latina.
  - - - The LatinX Project's article on him explains how his sculture Lo que me grita mi piel functions as a curanderismo practice, reclaiming a fragmented identity and healing colonial/immigrant trauma.
        
        Hybrid identity in art between culture, identity, race, all influenced by colonial foundations.
      - Class visit to the Van Every Smith Galleries@ Davidson College.
        
        Sahagún explained in our class visit how his work demonstrates how culture and identity are continually reshaped within the legacies of colonial foundations and race, as his sculptures and family portraits blend traditional Mexican imagery and materials with symbols of U.S. urban life such as the Chicago Bulls hat. This blend shows how immigrant identity is not only rooted in their cultural heritage but also marked by colonial racial structures. This combination shows how cultural pride and self‑representation are expressed through art while also showing the continued influence of colonial histories on racial belonging in the United States.
    - - Some songs, like I Like It strike a good balance of not being too forced, campy, or tokenizing. Other songs like Taki Taki force the bilingual components too much, showing inauthentic Latinx pride.
        
        True cultural pride is natural, not forced.
    - - "No te endendi" - Bad Bunny
        
        Bad Bunny's refusal to conform to English shows how language itself is tied up in colonial hierarchy. He challenges this by speaking in Spanish rather than the "main" global language.
  - - - This brave example of street/bus performance shows how casual displays of one's culture can quickly inspire others to examine their cultural roots.
- - - - Borders: People aren't allowed to enter the land that colonial powers once entered and stole from natives.
    - - Identity and belonging. Javier doesn't "belong" in the places he travels through, so he must develop a new identity to protect himself.
    - - Javier’s early confrontation with danger and betrayal reflects how migration forces children into adult realities early. This trip could be life or death, and Javier must understand how important it is for him to follow instructions. He also experiences betrayal by Marcelo, a tough reality to face at just nine years old.
        
        Internal betrayal in migration
    - - Solidarity becomes survival for the group, and they quickly become very close to ensure the success of their goals.
    - - Hundreds of years after colonial borders were imposed, people are being excluded from entire geographical regions (countries).
  - - - These Argentine mothers gathered in Buenos Aires to demand justice for their missing children during the “Dirty War”. These mothers began marching weekly in front of the presidential palace in Buenos Aires while holding pictures of their children, in hopes of receiving answers about the tens of thousands of missing people under the regime’s power. Unfortunately though, they often times received unsatisfying answers and did not find their kids, reflecting the harsh realities of this "Dirty War".
        
        These mothers became a symbol against state terror and a demand for human rights. They did this by transforming private grief into public protest and using their motherhood as a moral authority to challenge the dictatorship's silence and mistreatment of citizens.
  - - - This white takeover reflects Puerto Rico's longer racial history, where whiteness is typically privileged. Americans "traveled" to Puerto Rico and exploit the energy system in place there.
      - The citizen protests against LUMA shows a resistance to authority and high powers in the energy space, highlighting the strength of Puerto Rican people in protest. They have national pride and don't want foreign powers taking over their country, as energy is a basic human right that everyone deserves.
  - - - After migrating, the challenges people face are far from over. Kids that immigrate somewhere often face three transition periods later on— discovery (ages 16 to 18 years), learning to be illegal (ages 18 to 24 years), and coping (ages 25 to 29 years).
        
        These kids then go on to feel the need to hide and become scared of capture. They must accept this new identity and feel forced to conform to cultural norms around them so as to not get caught.
  - - - "As it had done with earlier Cuban and Dominican arrivals, Washington pursued a dual and discriminatory policy toward the new immigrants: the Immigration and Naturalization Service welcomed the Nicaraguans but intercepted and interned the Guatemalans and Savlvadorans. By routinely denying refugee status to the latter two groups, our government condemned Salvadorans and Guatemalans who managed to sneak across the border to a precariouis and illegal existence at the margins of Anglo society."
        
        This quote shows that immigrants are treated differently based on where they come from. This prejudice towards specific groups reflects long-rooted colonialist beliefs towards certain people which leads to total exclusion from society.
    - - Page 12 quote: "A twenty-five-year-old woman had been abandoned with her three children by the coyote that
        her parents borrowed money to hire". This abandonment is in reference to Daniela Silva, whose story was shared in this excerpt, revealing that migration is not only difficult when dealing with border patrol, police, etc., but also with those "closest" to you. Daniela was betrayed by someone from within whom she paid and was supposed to trust, showing just how brutal the migration journey can be.
    - - During our visit, we saw pictures of abandoned tents, clothes, toothbrushes, and children’s toys. These everyday items symbolize the harsh realities migrants face — forced to leave behind both necessities and sentimental belongings in order to survive or escape border patrol. The fear of capture reflects how colonial power overreach continues today, depriving migrants of dignity and fundamental human rights.
      - Susan Harbage Page's collections
- - - - "The Story of the Little Mouse and the Little Cat" from Subcomandate Marcos, Zapatista Stories for Dreaming An-Other World, Edited and translated by Colectivo Relámpago/Lightning Collective , (2022), Excerpt
        
        Shows how violence as a last resort can be effective. Zapatistas don't want to use violence, but they will if they have to.
    - - Latin American mothers go to Mexico to search for their children who went missing while migrating, bringing awareness to the tragedies about migration. Sadly, despite their social movements, these mothers often don't reunite with their children.
      - The mothers' persistence points to the strength and pride of Latin American women. When they want to accomplish something, they will fight until the end, which is what we see in this documentary. Many of these parents never stop looking for their kids, even after 15 years.
        
        Maternal activism against the harsh realities of missing children
  - - - Challenging societal norms and beliefs
      - Guillermo Gómez-Peña (GGP)
        
        "In Defense of Performance Art"
        
        Performance Art is a prime example of a theme from our LAS class that creates pushback against societal norms.
        
        “Yes. I am at odds with authority; whether it is political, religious, sexual, racial, or aesthetic, and I am constantly questioning imposed structures and dogmatic behavior wherever I find it. As soon as I am told what to do and how to do it, my hair goes up, my blood begins to boil, and I begin to figure out surprising ways to dismantle that particular form of authority” (In Defense of Performance Art 6)
        
        This quote shows how Performance Art can be used to dismantle authority in a "surprising way". In this work, GGP talks about how performance art can "turn the colonial gaze inward" and how unique performances can directly confront societal issues. These performances create a voice for marginalized groups by bringing awareness on the global stage.
        
        "Couple in the Cage"
        
        One of the most prominent protests against historical dehumanization narratives of minority groups.
        
        How?
        
        GGP uses exotic native costumes, large feathers, bright colors, among other elements in the cage to make viewers uncomfortable. This shows the absurdity of past dehumanization narratives towards people of color and indigenous backgrounds.
      - Resistance to authority
      - Susana Cook
        
        Fury of the Gods
        
        Mockery and humor used to emphasize the absurdity of some religious beliefs.
      - Xandra Ibarra
        
        Nude Laughing
        
        Ibarra creates an uncomfortable scene for viewers to confront ideas of race and gender through her appearance as a white woman. This act is a critique of how women and whiteness can be seen, and the discomfort prompts internal reflection for viewers.
    - - C. Mathews Samson, “Text and Context: Social Context and the Content of Liturgical Texts in Nicaragua and El Salvador” Human Mosaic 25, 1-2: 25-35.
        
        "Salvation is liberation"
        
        Liberation from poverty and oppression itself is a sacred act.
      - “Turning Tears into Nothing,” by Miles Richardson, as it appears in Chapter 11, The Naked Anthropologist: Takes from Aroudn the World, ed. Philip R. DeVita.
        
        "He says it's nothing. You simply don't have permission to earn a living. To get permission, to have that right, you have to pay a fee. That's all. It is nothing."
        
        Colonialist structures can still be seen in everyday affairs— even a little Mexican girl trying to sell pecans gets shut down. Permission to live and work becomes a form of control.
  - - - "Theology of the people"
        
        Pope Francis reframes Catholicism by moving the Church away from colonial hierarchies of race, gender, and power. He gives a voice to the poor and marginalized to build a more equitable world. This activism can be seen where Gustafson asserts "At the same time, his renewed focus on solidarity with the poor, social justice, and environmental sustainability implies a not-so-subtle critique of Latin America's ruling elite, including in some cases the clergy."
    - - "Colonialism, both old and new, which reduces poor countries to mere providers of raw material and cheap labor, engenders violence, poverty, forced migrations and all the evils which go hand in hand with these, precisely because, by placing the periphery at the service of the center, it denies those countries the right to an integral development."
        
        Pope Francis links this critique to his 3 L's: land, labor, and lodging. He believes that everyone deserves these three things despite neoliberalist and colonialist systems put in place preventing this.
        
        Anti-Colonialism / Advocacy for Human Rights
  - - - YouTubers used social media for political education, urging critical thinking before voting and opposing hate-filled, regressive politics (#EleNão, #CreatorsForDemocracy).
        
        Digital Activism
      - Activism and resistance through social media. These YouTubers redefine black politics and awareness through social media. This activism shows a fight against white privilege and colonial upbringings.
    - - The fight for Black equality across the Americas is a continuous struggle that began with European colonization and slavery and persists today through structural racism and neocolonial control
        
        African descendants across Latin America still face social, political, and economic exclusion. Black activism and digital activism, particularly for women and LGBTQ+ groups are increasingly important today, especially with far-right leaders in power such as Jair Bolsonaro and Donald Trump.