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GRAMMAR AWARENESS - Coggle Diagram

- - - - Words
      - Phrases
      - Clauses
      - Sentences
      - Texts
    - - Grammar is not linear
      - Units are embedded (part–whole)
      - Smaller units build larger ones
  - - - Open vs Closed classes
      - Function over meaning
      - Context determines category
    - - Morphemes (free / bound)
      - Inflection vs derivation
      - Word formation processes
  - - - Open vs Closed classes
      - Function over meaning
      - Context determines category
    - - Morphemes (free / bound)
      - Inflection vs derivation
      - Word formation processes
- - - - NP, VP, AdjP, AdvP, PP
    - - Head
        
        Central element of the phrase
        
        Determines:
        
        phrase type
        
        grammatical properties
      - Modifiers
        
        Add descriptive information
        Optional elements
        
        Pre-modifiers (before head)
        Post-modifiers (after head)
      - Complements
        
        Required by the head
        Complete the meaning
    - - Subject
        
        Typically realised by NP
        
        Controls:
        
        verb agreement
        
        sentence perspective
      - Object
        
        Direct object
        
        Indirect object
        
        Usually realised by NP
      - Complement
        
        Subject complement
        
        Object complement
        
        Realised by:
        
        NP
        
        AdjP
        
        PP
      - Modifier
        
        Adds optional information
        
        Expresses:
        
        time
        
        place
        
        manner
        
        reason
- - - - A constituent = group of words functioning as a unit
      - Sentences have hierarchical structure
    - - Substitution
      - Movement
      - Coordination
      - Ellipsis (deletion)
      - Question–answer test
      - Clefting / pseudo-clefting
    - - No single test is decisive
      - Constituency established by converging evidence
- - - - Given vs New
      - End-focus
      - End-weight
    - - Fronting
      - Cleft constructions
      - There-structures
      - Parentheticals
    - - Avoid misplaced modifiers
      - Control nominalisation
      - Manage subordination
    - - Parallelism
      - Pronoun reference & agreement
      - Tense consistency
- - - - Clarify structure
      - Mark boundaries
      - Signal emphasis
    - - Sentence fragments
      - Run-ons & comma splices
      - Coordination & subordination
      - Relative clauses (restrictive / non-restrictive)
      - Apposition
      - Direct speech
      - Apostrophes & genitives
- - - - Gradual
      - Cognitive
      - Context-sensitive
      - Interlanguage development
    - - Implicit vs explicit knowledge
      - Noticing hypothesis
      - Role of practice
    - - Focus on form
      - Consciousness-raising
      - Grammar tasks
      - Guided induction
- - - - 1. Grammar Learning as a Process
        
        Gradual
        
        Developmental
        
        Non-linear
        
        Learners progress in stages
      - Grammar competence emerges over time
      - 2. Implicit vs Explicit Knowledge
      - Implicit Knowledge
        
        Unconscious
        
        Used in fluent communication
        
        Difficult to verbalise
      - Explicit Knowledge
        
        Conscious
        
        Rule-based
        
        Metalinguistic awareness
  - - - Implicit Knowledge
        
        Unconscious
        
        Used in fluent communication
        
        Difficult to verbalise
      - Explicit Knowledge
        
        Conscious
        
        Rule-based
        
        Metalinguistic awareness
  - - - Input ≠ intake
      - Learners must notice grammatical forms
      - Attention is essential for learning
  - - - Learners build a personal grammar system
      - Grammar is:
        
        incomplete
        
        changing
        
        systematic
      - Errors:
        
        Natural
        
        Evidence of learning
        
        Signs of hypothesis testing
  - - - Practice supports:
        
        automatisation
        
        fluency
      - Mechanical drills alone are insufficient
      - Practice must be:
        
        meaningful
        
        varied
        
        contextualised
  - - - Teaching rules ≠ learning grammar
        
        Learners need to:
        
        interpret
        
        compare
        
        reflect
      - Focus on Form
        
        Grammar taught:
        
        within communication
        
        Attention shifts briefly to form
        
        Meaning remains primary
  - - - Learners learn:
        
        why one form is chosen
        
        what effect it has
      - Grammar linked to:
        
        intention
        
        context
  - - - Rule → examples
        
        Teacher-centred
        
        Useful for:
        
        advanced learners
        
        explicit knowledge
- - - - not only rules
      - not isolated sentences
      - but meaning-in-context
    - - System of patterns and regularities
      - Rule-governed, not random
      - Hierarchical organization
    - - Word level
      - Phrase level
      - Clause level
      - Sentence level
      - Text / discourse level
    - - Time → tense
      - Reality / attitude → modality
      - Relationships → voice
      - Quantity / definiteness → articles & number
    - - Different forms → different meanings
      - Same meaning → different grammatical realizations
      - Meaning is grammatically shaped
    - - Speakers choose forms based on:
        
        intention
        
        communicative goal
        
        situation
    - - Same structure ≠ same effect
      - Grammar varies with:
        
        formality
        
        audience
        
        purpose
    - - Grammar is:
        
        dynamic
        
        flexible
        
        context-dependent
      - Rules describe tendencies, not absolutes
    - - Grammar operates across sentences
      - Meaning emerges in connected text
    - - Organising information
      - Managing topics
      - Maintaining coherence
    - - Reference (pronouns)
      - Substitution
      - Ellipsis
      - Conjunction
    - - Logical flow
      - Interpretive unity
      - Reader-oriented meaning
    - - Given → beginning
      - New → end
    - - End-focus
      - Fronting
      - Cleft constructions
      - Passive voice
    - - Grammar guides reader attention
      - Structure reflects discourse priorities
    - - Grammar reflects:
        
        politeness
        
        authority
        
        distance
        
        involvement
    - - What is meant ≠ what is said
      - Grammar interacts with:
        
        inference
        
        context
        
        shared knowledge
    - - Grammar ≠ memorising rules
      - Grammar = understanding choices
    - - Awareness
      - Interpretation
      - Use in context
    - - Word classes → grammatical meaning
      - Phrase & clause structure → meaning building
      - Constituent analysis → structural interpretation
      - Style & punctuation → meaning clarity
      - Grammar teaching → applied understanding
- - - - Independent (main)
      - Dependent (subordinate)
      - Finite / non-finite
      - Verbless clauses
    - - Simple
      - Compound
      - Complex
      - Compound-complex
    - - Declarative
      - Interrogative
      - Imperative
      - Exclamative
    - - There-structures
      - Anticipatory it
      - Passive constructions
      - Ellipsis
- - - - 3. Conditions for Being a Morpheme
        
        Must contribute meaning
        
        Must occur in other words
      - 2. Types of Morphemes
        
        Bound morphemes
        
        cannot stand alone (-s, -ed, un-)
        
        Free morphemes
        
        can stand alone (book, help)
      - 1. Definition
        
        Morpheme = smallest meaningful unit of a word
  - - - 1. Components
        
        Root / Base (help)
        
        Prefix (un-, re-, dis-)
        
        Suffix (-ful, -ness, -ment)
      - 2. Affixation
        
        Prefixation → meaning change
        
        Suffixation → class or meaning change
  - - - Derivational Morphology
        
        Creates new words
        
        Often changes:
        
        word class
        
        meaning
      - Examples
        
        happy → happiness
        
        govern → government
        
        nation → national
  - - - Expresses grammatical information
      - Does NOT create new words
      - Does NOT change word class
      - Examples
        
        -s (plural)
        
        -ed (past tense)
        
        -ing (progressive)
        
        -er / -est (comparison)
  - - - Two words → one word
      - Types:
        
        noun + noun (airport)
        
        adjective + noun (blackboard)
      - Endocentric vs exocentric compounds
    - - 2. Conversion (Zero Derivation)
        
        No form change
        
        Change in word class
      - Examples
        
        to email ← email
        
        to Google ← Google
      - 3. Blending
        
        Parts of words combined
      - Examples
        
        smog = smoke + fog
        
        brunch = breakfast + lunch
      - 4. Clipping
        
        Shortened forms
      - Examples
        
        exam ← examination
        
        lab ← laboratory
      - 5. Acronyms & Abbreviations
        
        Acronyms pronounced as words (NATO)
        
        Initialisms (BBC, USA)
      - 6. Back-Formation
        
        Shorter word created from longer one
      - Examples
        
        television → televise
        
        editor → edit
  - - - Old English
      - Norman French
      - Greek & Latin borrowings
    - - colour / color
      - centre / center
      - metre / meter
    - - Same spelling, different sound
      - Same sound
  - - - 1. Homophones
        
        same sound, different spelling
        
        accept / except
        
        their / there
      - 2. Importance
        
        Meaning clarity
        
        Written accuracy
  - - - Links vocabulary to grammar
      - Explains:
        
        word class changes
        
        grammatical meaning
        
        sentence structure choices
      - Supports:
        
        reading
        
        writing
        
        grammatical accuracy
- - - - Clause = structure with:
        
        a verb
        
        a subject (explicit or implicit)
        
        Expresses:
        
        situation
        
        action
        
        state
        
        relation
    - - Independent (Main) Clauses
        
        Can stand alone
        
        Express complete propositions
        
        Dependent (Subordinate) Clauses
        
        Cannot stand alone
        
        Depend on main clause
    - - Finite Clauses
        
        Contain a finite verb
        Mark tense, agreement, modality
      - Non-finite Clauses
        
        Infinitive clauses (to do)
        
        -ing clauses
        
        -ed clauses
        
        No tense marking
      - Verbless Clauses
        
        No explicit verb
        Meaning inferred from context
    - - Nominal Clauses
        
        Function as:
        
        subject
        
        object
        
        complement
        
        Often introduced by that, wh-
      - Relative Clauses
        
        Modify nouns
        
        Restrictive vs non-restrictive
        
        Introduced by:
        
        who, which, that
        
        zero relative
      - Adverbial Clauses
        
        Express:
        
        time
        
        reason
        
        condition
        
        concession
        
        purpose
        
        Introduced by subordinators (because, although, if)