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Test 4, Affect eachother, mutation, punnet squares - Coggle Diagram
Test 4
Heredity
Genetic Variation
diploid
each chromosome exists as part of a homologous pair
one from sperm, one from egg
homologues carry different version of genes (alleles)
alleles determine phenotype
alleles are varied
meiosis
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amount differs per species
sexual reproduction
advantageous due to mass amount of genes
promotes heterozygosity
offspring carry different alleles
can help survive harsher conditions
helps rid of harmful alleles
rapid adaption
protects against other organisms specailizations
self pollinization
fewer advantages
some plants biology do not allow it
passing traits from one generation to next ones
Mendel
Gregor Mendel laid groundwork for modern genetics
experiments on pea plants
three pinciples
Principle of Dominance
two true breeding parents
no variance in f1 generation
two versions of alleles
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Principle of Segregation
parent allele separates into daughter cells
each daughter cell has one allele
punnet squares help visualize allele separation
monohybrid
1 gene
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dihybrid
2 gene
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Principle of Independent Assortment
how genes are inherited on separate chromosomes
alleles from different traits go into daughter cells independently
More Mendel Principles
Incomplete Dominance
heterozygote would show half of each allele
red+white=pink
1red:2pink:1white
intermediate expression
codominance
heterozygote will show both alleles
red+white=red and white
1red:2red&white:1white
multiple alleles
many genes have more than 2 alleles
complex due to them being dominant, recessive, incomplete, or codominant
lots of variation in offspring phenotypes
differ from Mendel's ratio
mutation
heritable changes in genetic material
help evolution
point evolution
1 nucleotide change
swap A for C
can change amino acid coded
chromosomal evolution
larger changes
deletion (part lost)
duplication (part repeated)
inversions (parts flipped)
translocations (switched)
Nonrecombinant Gametes
occurs when crossing over fails
alleles are only the parents (only 2)
reduces diversity
polygenic inheritance
one gene controls many traits
epistasis
one gene hides or effects another gene
Pleiotropy
single gene affecting many phenotypic traits
Polyploidy
individuals carry more than two complete chromosome sets
Autopolyploidy
chromosome duplication in one species
Allopolyploidy
hybridization of species
chromosome doubling
bread
can make instant new species
Population Genetics
Hardy-Weinberg
Hardy–Weinberg equilibrium equation
influential in population genetics
assumes alleles are constant
(p + q)2 = p2 + 2pq + q2 = 1
p - dominant allele frequency
q- recessive allele frequency
p+q=1- frequency of all alleles
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requirements to be constant
no mutations
no new alleles from DNA
no genetic drift
negligible changes in allele frequency
no migration
no gene flow in or out
no natural selection
equal reproductive success
random mating
no mating preferences
If the mathematical frequencies are not observed a requirement has been broken
the population is evolving
null hypothesis for populations
Assumptions
if the constant law are broken
mutation
some alter plant traits some do not
must able to be passed down
Polymorphisms
population has multiple phenotypes for trait
cause by multiple alleles or Loci
example:
Aquilegia (columbine) flowers many spur lenghts
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Genetic drift
random changes in allele frequency
common in small populations
random event can cause
large populations keep effect minimal
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non random mating
plants tend to choose mates
pollen grain to stele size
pollinators are selective on plants
male-male competition (racing pollen tubes)
Migration
alleles move in and out of population
seeds or pollen carried through wind, animals, water
barriers like mountain, ocean, etc. can stop it
can be negative
GMO
climate change
can help diversify populations
natural selection
trait survives that is favorable to environment
artificial selection
breeding plants ford desirable traits
intentional
corn, wheat, common grocery store produce
population
group of a species in an area that breed
gene pool
all alleles in a population
individuals have 2 alleles
populations have many
wide variety of phenotypic and genotypic frequencies
Genotypic Frequency
inidivuals with a genotypes divided by all individuals
population of 4
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Allele frequency
amount of an allele in a population divided by total alleles
50/100 or 50% is allele frequency if it occurs in 50 out of 100 of the population
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Patterns of natural selection
shapes how populations adapt to their environment
directional selection
a predator has a preference for a certain trait
that trait is eaten so appears less often
the population shifts towards the uneaten (more desirable for survival) trait
stabilizing selection
intermediate type favored
extremes are not favorable
less diveristy
disruptive selection
favors extremes
intermediates not favorable
diverse
no selection
no trait is advantageous over another
random events are not detrimental to any specific traits
fire kills all
Community Ecology
population demography
how births and deaths effect population
exponential growth
population rapidly increases
seems like unlimited resources
dN/dt = rN
N population size
t time
dN/dt change in population size over time
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exponential growth in real life is short lived
logistic growth
(dN/dt = rN(1 – N/K)
shows resource constraints
K carrying capacity
N population
dN/dt change in population over time
r intrinsic growth rate
population stabilizes around K
carrying capacity (K)
how much population can be supported
can be exceeded if:
not enough resources
populations
r-selected
rapid reproduction
minimal parental investment
production of many small seeds
in disturbed habitats
k-selected
stable habitats
few offspring
invest significantly in defenses or resource needy reproduction spreading
Life History Tables
predict changes in population
Surviorship
lx = Nx / N0
how many live to a certain age
per-Capita Fecundity
lx* Fx
offspring related to survivorship
Survival Rate
Sx = Nx+1 / Nx
plants that survive to a certain point
Age-Weighted Fecundity
x
lx
Fx
adds reproductive timing
Net Reproductive Rate (R0)
sum of fecundity
offspring produced in lifetime
Mean Generation Time (G)
average interval from birth to reproduction
add Age-Weighted Fecundity divide by reproductive rate
Intrinsic Growth Rate
growth with unlimited resources
natural log of the net reproductive rate and divide by the mean generation time
Survivor Types
Type 1
constant morality on all ages
Type 2
early mortality in life
Type 3
mortality later in life
Community Intereactions
species influencing each others lifestyles
positive
commensalism
one benefits on neutral
mutualism
both benefit
negative
allelopathy
chemical compounds that effect other plants
amensalism
one harmed one neutral
competition
Lotlka Voltera
Prey Equation
dN/dt=rN−aNP
rN exponential growth of prey
aNP rate of predation
a kill rate
NP how populations effect encounters
Predator equation
dP/dt=b(aNP)−mP
b(aNP) prey consumed related to predator offspring
mP predator deaths over time
Affect eachother
mutation
punnet squares
