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Associations of L1-to-L2 rhetorical transfer with L2 writers’ perception…

- - - - L2 essays show strong similarity to L1 essays in:
        
        introduction structure
        
        paragraph organization
        
        argument development
        
        conclusion patterns
    - - Learners who perceive L2 writing as “difficult” rely more heavily on L1 rhetorical structures.
      - High-difficulty writers show more direct transfer.
    - - Negative transfer:
        
        Occurs when L1 and English rhetorical norms are mismatched
        
        Leads to poor coherence, weak logic, and disorganized structure
      - Positive transfer:
        
        Occurs when L1 patterns support English rhetorical expectations
        
        Can enhance clarity and structural organization