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Extremism & Quest for Significance - Coggle Diagram
Extremism & Quest for Significance
Extremism
Violent Extremism (Horgan, 2008; Sageman, 2004)
No clear profile of radical individual
Explanations for violent extremism often make attribution errors
But no clear profile of radical individual necessitates investigation of situational components
Attribution Errors
Biases toward internal explanations
Especially when concerning rare behaviours
Explanations may be comforting
Intuitive to assume if most not engage in extremism then must be something about them
Difference between them & us
Internal Explanations
Personality traits
Mental health disorders
Reasons
Collective
Personal
Collective Reasons
Relative deprivation
Discrimination & marginalisation
Group disrespected
Study: Relative Deprivation (Smith et al., 2012)
R: Compare group to diff group that perceived to be better off
Study: Discrimination & Marginalisation (Victoroff et al., 2012)
Study: Discrimination & Marginalisation (Lyons et al., 2015)
Study: Group Disrespected (de Zavala et al., 2013)
Personal Reasons
Personal stigmatisation
Personal/relationship failures
Humiliation & shame
Study: Personal Stigmatisation (Pedhazur, 2005)
Study: Personal/Relationship Failures (Jasko et al., 2016
Study: Humiliation & Shame (Webber et al., 2018)
Extremism & Quest for Significance (Fromm, 1973)
Humans have fundamental need to feel significant by projecting existence onto larger scale
Life inherently uncertain
Ultimately isolated in existence
Humans need object of devotion to be focal point of striving
Elevates beyond isolated existence w. doubts & insecurity
Gives meaning to life
Study: Extremism & Significance (Kruglanski et al., 2014; 2022)
Frustrated meaning can foster radical pursuits in effort to obtain significance
Thwarted meaning to life
Quests for significance activated
Extreme behaviour an attempt to restore/gain significance
Study: Extremism & Significance (Kruglanski et al., 2022)
Activation of Quests for Significance
Events that entail loss of significance
Lack of significance to start
Situations that offer opportunities to boost significance
Events
Bereavement
Divorce
Homeland invasion
Implication
Unknown purpose going through life
May be personal/collective
Opportunities
Contributing to group gives
Implication
Contributions generate meaning w/in group/wider context
Restoration/Gaining Significance
Honour
Desire to enter heaven
Status
Recognition
Injustice
Humiliation
Vengeance
Loyalty to leader
Quest for Significance Model
Significance discrepancy
Significance quest
Extremism
Significance Discrepancy
Loss of significance
High need for significance
Loss of Significance
Culturally relative
Personal reasons
Collective reasons
Personal Reasons
Shame
Rejection
Failure
Bereavement
Job loss
Collective Reasons
Group disrespect
Invasion of homeland
Culturally Relative
Stigmatisation varies across contexts
Example: Divorce
Western divorce not stigmatising
Non-WIERD divorce stigmatising
Shameful
Disappoint family
High Need for Significance
Current level of significance not what desire
Significance Quest
Need for significance salient
Focus of goals
Alternative needs suppressed
Extremism
Ideologies promote clear-cut ways to achieve significance
Extremism & Maintenance of Significance (Kruglanski et al., 2013)
Once have gone down extremist pathway is need to maintain significance throughout
Significance tied to ideology & group
Significance loss/gain motivation can foster & maintain radical pursuits
Potential for significance loss increases pressure to comply w. group norms
Significance affiliated w. group & compliance w. group norms
Effect of Significance
Self-sacrifice
Sensation-seeking
Exclusion
Study: Exclusion & Extremism (Renstrom et al., 2020)
A: Feelings of exclusion
M: Manipulate exclusion vs inclusion & measure rejection sensitivity & asked for interest in joining group aligned with political preference & permissibility of actions
R: Endorsement affected by sensitivity
High rejection sensitivity increase endorsement in group
A: Feelings of Exclusion
May heighten significance loss which drives extremism
M: Manipulation Method
Social media paradigm
Cyberball paradigm
Social Media Paradigm
Generate social media profile
Likes appear next to names
How many people like you
Cyberball Paradigm
Play game online w. two other people
Ball tossed between
Throw/don't throw ball to you
Study: Significance Gain & Self-Sacrifice (Jasko et al., 2019)
A: Quest for significance
M: Series studies examining various causes, measure cause importance/significance gain/willingness to sacrifice
R: Measures positively associated
Cause importance associated w. significance gain
Significance gain associated w. willingness to sacrifice
M: Planes
Causes
Measurement
Causes
Feminism
Left-wing
Environmentalism
Democratic
Measurements
Cause importance
Significance gain
Willingness to sacrifice
Time
Moeny
A: Quest for Significance
Seeing causes as important increases significance that can be gained
In turn effect willingness to sacrifice for said causes
R: Critical Evaluation
Correlational evidence
Study: Significance & Sensation-Seeking (Schumpe et al., 2018)
M: Correlational, longitudinal, & experimental studies
R: Sensation seeking fosters radicalised pursuits which can be exciting
Search for meaning associated w. sensation seeking
Support for political violence 1 associated w. sensation seeking & support for political violence when baseline support controlled
Sensation seeking associated w. support for political violence when baseline support controlled
R: Explanation
Disruption to meaning/significance lead to cognitive opening
Question beliefs & become more open to new ideas
Can intensify novel sensation-seeking
Engage in thrilling/exciting 'adventure'/change
Critical Evaluation
Converging evidence increases confidence in results
Extremist Motivations
Significance Quests (Gill et al., 2014; Gruenewald et al., 2013)
Individuals who commit lone acts of terrorism
Disproportionately likely to be socially isolated/divorced/separated/widowed
Struggle to understand purpose in life
See value of pursuits
Thomas Crooks - Trump Assassination Attempt
Bullied & described as loner
Dropped out of school
Anders Breivik - Norway Attacks (2011)
Felt that never in his life had done anything more meaningful that what was doing now
Tmerlan Tsarvaev - Boston Bomber
Poorly assimilated in American culture
Often marginalised/prejudiced
Family on welfare
Parents divorcing & unemployed being supported by wife
Shame
College dropout
Not live up to aspirations
Seen by successful uncles as a loser
Steven Paddock - Las Vegas Shooter
Divorced twice
Described by neighbours as lonely
Columbine Shooters
Bullied
Wanted to leave lasting mark
Focal Goal Commitment (Shah et al., 2002)
Collective loss of significance
Action restores collective meaning
Commitment to specific goal enhanced
Alternative goals diminished
Study: Suicide Bombers (Webber et al., 2017)
A: Analysis of quest motivation of suicide bombers
M: Code hallmarks of loss of significance
R: Evidence of significance gain/loss in 68% w. differences in motivator target
Significance gain in men, younger, educated
Significance loss in women, older, little education
R: Explanation
Gain/loss motivator influenced by drive & social context
Stronger the significance quest is, the stronger this manifests
More instances of significance motivation positively correlated w. no. casualties
R: Critical Evaluation
Code only what know about them
May underestimate results
Hayashi Ichizo - Kamikaze Pilot (Ohnuki-Tierney, 2006)
All men born in Japan are destined to die for country
Implication
Own views suppressed in favour of significance
Even if not want action must complete it
M: Hallmarks of Significance
Gain
Loss
Hallmarks of Gain
Reward
Purpose
Religious martyrdom
Hallmarks of Loss
Shame
Family death
Conflict
Failure
Al Qaeda
No way out bu to do jihad for cause of Allah
Turning to martyrdom & wishing of death
Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam
Passion & loyalty to group
Those in charge
Those who sacrificed lives for group
Come to stage where no love/value for self
Ready to give/destroy self in order to destroy another person
Study: Ideologically Motivated Crimes (Jasko et al., 2017)
A: Engagement in violent/non-violent extremism
M: Hallmarks of loss of significance
P: 1496 crimes
R: Loss of Significance
2.81 O/R had achievement LoS
3.45 O/R had relationship LoS
.047 O/R had radical social network
M: Hallmarks of Loss of Significance
Achievement
Relationship
Radical social network
Relationship LoS
Relationship difficulties
Platonic/romantic
Radical Social Network
Extreme radical friend
Achievement LoS
Unemployed
Socioeconomic status
Work history
R: Critical Evaluation
May be hallmarks of Q for S not observed
May underestimate results
Going to the Extreme
Study: Extremism
Extremist ideologies
Political extremism
Study: Extremist Ideologies (Webber et al., 2017)
A: Extremist ideologies satisfy significance more than moderate ones
P: Liberal & Conservative
M: Loss of significance manipulation & need for closure & support for political views measures
R: Extremist ideologies satisfy significance more than moderate ones
Loss of significance positive association w. need for closure
Need for closure positive association w. extremist beliefs
Need for closure negative association w. moderate beliefs
A: Explanation
Heightened uncertainty after experiencing loss of significance
Extremist ideologies provide more cognitive closure
M: Measures
Manipulation
Political views
M: Political Views
Extreme liberal view
Moderate view
Extreme conservative view
Moderate View
Sale of firearms should be permitted but regulated
Background checks
Extreme Conservative View
Should not be restrictions on American's abilities to acquire firearms
Extreme Liberal View
Should be ban on sale of all firearms
Manipulation
Humiliation
TV
R: Explanation
Significance loss evokes uncertainty that extremist groups reduce
Ideological extremity from moderate ground in response to loss of significance
Extremist ideologies provide more cognitive closure
Highly entitative, clear cut & unambiguous way of viewing reality
Entitative
Clear boundaries & structure
Clear goals & beliefs
Internally homogenous
Entitativity (Campbell)
What makes a group group-y
Some groups feel more real than others while others artificial/fleeting
Clear-cut way of understanding group
Who is/is not group member
How to act & common goal
Study: Political Extremism
Political leaders
Presidential election
Study: Radical Political Leaders (Moszczynka et al., 2020)
A: Examine political leaders supporters
M: Examination on range of planes
R: Leader radicalism affect planes
Leader radicalism positive association w. cause importance
Cause importance positive association w. significance gain
Significance gain positive association w. self-sacrifice
Significance gain positive association w. activist intentions
A: Justification
Radical leaders gain traction
Extreme ideological positions cause individuals to re-evaluate importance of cause
Significance more satisfied by radical than moderate causes
Fuels willingness to engage in extreme actions
Political Leaders
Trump
Clinton
Sanders
M: Planes of Examination
Perceived radicalism of candidate
Cause importance
Significance gain
Activist intentions
Willingness to self-sacrifice
R: Significance
How radical leaders exert strong ideological positions
Cause people to re-evaluate
Example: Clinton
Clinton perceived as less radical
Less significance gain for supporters
Less willing to sacrifice
Weaker activist intentions
Critical Evaluation
Correlational data
Study: Presidential Election (Jasko et al., 2020)
A: Win/loss of election & personal significance
M: Anticipated & actual success/failure in 2016 election
R: Sense of worth wrapped in election outcome
Significance loss predict support for peaceful action among Clinton supporters
Significance loss & gain predict support for questioning integrity & hostile action among Trump supporters
Significance: 2020 US Presidential Election
Trump supporters engaged in predicted behaviour
Accused faked voting
Stored Capitol building
Theories of Extremism
Uncertainty reduction
Three N's
Uncertainty Reduction Theory (Hogg, 2000)
Branch of social identification theory
Identification w. groups stronger when reduce uncertainty
Uncertainty prime vs control
Group entitativity high vs low
Study: Theory (Hogg et al., 2010)
A: Radicalism by group identification
R: Radicalism depend on group identification
Highest radicalism in high uncertainty & identification
Study: Theory (Hogg et al., 2007)
A: Radicalism by group identification
M: Entitativity manipulation
R: Joining group depend on entitativity & certainty
Entitativity sig higher in high than low uncertainty
M: Manipulation
Clear/ambiguous purpose & membership
Difficulty to gain group membership
Extreme/moderate ways to achieve outcomes
Three N's Theory (Kruglanski et al., 2017)
Three N's that filter through to violent extremism
Exposure to certain features mean resolve through violent pursuits
Exposure to right/healthy means significance satisfied through non-violent pursuits
Three N's
Needs
Narratives
Networks
Needs
Activated quest for significance
Narratives
Glorification of violence
Moral acceptance of violence
Narratives & Social Media
Echo chamber
Networks
Increase accessibility of narrative
Support & validate narrative
Networks & Social
Friends/family/community
Study: Supporting Theory (Jasko et al., 2019)
A: Link between significance questions & violence
P: Areas Morocco in areas w. high/low presumed terrorist activity
M: Examination of people in radical vs less radical contexts across measured planes
R: Link between significance & violent extremism significantly stronger for people exposed to radical contexts
A: Justification
Social contexts that justify & glorify violence should increase link between significance quests & violence
M: Planes
Significance quest
Ideological extremism
Violent extremism
Critical Evaluation
Studies provide partial evidence for model
But no study examined all Ns together for producing extremism
Most work correlational
Most work cross-sectional
Limitations grounded in ethical considerations
Future Directions
Experimental work
Longitudinal work
Understand how process of radicalisation unfolds over time
De-Radicalisation
De-Radicalisation & Quest for Significance
Assumes quest for significance drives toward extremist/radical pursuits
De-radicalisation should occur in specific situations
If significance drives toward extremist/radical pursuits
Situations
Group/ideology no longer satisfies significance
Significance satisfied through alternative means
Significance (Schumpe et al., 2018)
Should promote more exciting peaceful alternatives
Study: De-Radicalisation
Defection
Programmes
Study: Defection
ISIS
ETA
Study: ISIS Defectors (Neumann, 2015)
A: Identify situations causing defection
P: Defected ISIS members
M: Case study
R: Identified common themes in defection
Quality of life not meet promised standards
Disillusioned by infighting & deemed illegitimate
Saw hypocrisy/un-Islamic behaviour of fellow members
R: Implication
Ideology no longer satisfy
Cross-cutting of ties
Whether views actually accurate
Study: ETA Defectors (Renaires, 2011)
A: Identify situations causing defection
P: Defected ETA members
M: Case studies
R: Identified common themes in defection
Devoted enough time to cause
Desire to make life for self
R: Implication
Ideology no longer prioritised compared to own ambitions
Satisfied significance elsewhere
Study: De-Radicalisation Programmes (Webber et al., 2017)
A: Effect of de-radicalisation programmes
P: Members of Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam
M: Detainees placed in rehabilitation facilities for treatment courses
R: De-radicalisation follows process
Rehabilitation attitude positive association w. insignificance
Insignificance positive association w. extremism
M: Facilities
Facility type
Treatment length
Types of Facilities
Educational
Vocational
Psychosocial
Importance
Skills to gain significance elsewhere in life
Treatment Length
None
0 months
Partial
6 months
Full
12 months
R: Implications
Programme worked as increased significance
Lower levels extremism after 12 months
Particularly after receiving full treatment
Released detainees have lower levels of extremism than non-extremist Tamil community