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Ecology Pt I, Ecotone & Vertical Zonation - Coggle Diagram

- - - - Biome
        
        major ecosystem type classified by climate & vegetation
      - For terrestrial biomes
        
        defined by dominant plant forms & climate
      - For aquatic biomes
        
        defined by physical environment
    - - Thermal / Geographic
        
        Tropical
        
        hot year-round
        
        near equator (0°–23.5°), high solar input, warm temps
        
        Temperate
        
        has seasons
        
        mid-latitudes (30°–60°), moderate temps, strong seasonality
        
        Alpine
        
        high elevation
        
        above tree line; cold, windy; similar to tundra but altitude-driven
      - Plant Life
        
        Evergreen
        
        keeps leaves year-round
        
        retains photosynthetic foliage across seasons; common where nutrients are scarce
        
        Deciduous
        
        drops leaves seasonally
        
        sheds foliage to conserve water and avoid freeze damage
        
        Shrub
        
        woody plant with low branching
        
        multiple stems, fire/drought-adapted
        
        Herbaceous
        
        soft, non-woody plants
        
        non-lignified stems, often die back seasonally
      - Soil/Ice
        
        Permafrost
        
        permanently frozen ground
        
        soil below 0°C for ≥2 years; prevents deep roots; causes surface water pooling
    - - Tropical Rainforest
        
        0° (equator)
        
        Very wet (200–400+ cm/yr)
        
        Hot, constant temperature
        
        Plants → broadleaf evergreen trees, vines, epiphytes
        
        Animals → extremely diverse insects, birds, mammals, reptiles
      - Savanna
        
        Warm temperatures
        
        Plants → grasses with scattered shrubs/trees
        
        Seasonal rainfall (distinct wet & dry seasons)
        
        Animals → large herbivores, predators, migratory herds
        
        Between tropical desert & tropical forest (~0–30°)
      - Tropical Desert
        
        Hot
        
        Plants → sparse shrubs, succulents (cacti)
        
        Very dry
        
        Animals → reptiles, insects, rodents adapted to heat and water scarcity
        
        Around 30° N/S
      - Temperate Desert
        
        Hot summers, cold winters
        
        Dry; variable rainfall
        
        Plants → sagebrush, scattered shrubs, short grasses
        
        Animals → rodents, snakes, coyotes; drought-adapted
        
        30–60° in continental interiors
      - Polar Desert
        
        Plants → no trees; mosses, lichens, cyanobacteria
        
        Animals → few land mammals; birds in summer; many marine-dependent species
        
        Very cold; air can’t hold much moisture → dry
        
        Near 90° (Arctic/Antarctic)
      - Chaparral
        
        Plants → evergreen shrubs, fire-adapted plants
        
        Wet, mild winters; hot, dry summers
        
        Animals → seed-eaters, deer, small predators
        
        Note: chaparral ≠ savanna; it’s shrubland, not grassland experiencing wildfires
        
        Mediterranean climates (~30°)
      - Temperate Grassland
        
        Animals → large grazers, burrowing mammals, predators
        
        Plants → grasses, forbs; very few trees
        
        Cold winters, hot summers
        
        Moderate, often seasonal precipitation; periodic drought
        
        30–60°
      - Northern Coniferous Forest
        
        Animals → bears, wolves, moose, migratory birds
        
        Plants → coniferous evergreen trees (spruce, fir, pine)
        
        Long, cold winters
        
        Moderate–high precipitation (mostly snow)
        
        Around 60° latitude or high mountains
      - Temperate Broadleaf Forest
        
        Distinct seasons
        
        Plants → deciduous trees (oak, maple, beech)
        
        Moderate precipitation
        
        Animals → diverse mammals, birds, insects
        
        30–60° latitude
      - Tundra
        
        Animals → migratory birds, caribou, small mammals
        
        Plants → mosses, grasses, dwarf shrubs, lichens
        
        Short growing season
        
        Cold, dry; permafrost present
        
        60–90° or high alpine regions
    - - Drives succession; shapes which species dominate over time
      - event that changes community; removes organisms
        
        fires, storms, human clearing
  - - - Light Zones
      - Position Zones
      - Temperature & Mixing
    - - Physical
        
        standing freshwater; stratified by light & temperature
      - Chemical
        
        oxygen and nutrients vary (oligotrophic vs eutrophic)
      - Geologic
        
        basins in land, sediment accumulation
      - Autotrophs
        
        phytoplankton, algae, littoral plants
      - Heterotrophs
        
        zooplankton, fish, insects, crustaceans
    - - Physical
        
        water-saturated soils; still or slow-moving water
      - Chemical
        
        low oxygen, high nutrients
      - Geologic
        
        shallow basins, floodplains, coastal areas
      - Autotrophs
        
        emergent plants (cattails, reeds), algae
      - Heterotrophs
        
        amphibians, birds, invertebrates, fish
    - - Geologic
        
        channels that cut through landscapes
      - Autotrophs
        
        algae, rooted plants (in slower reaches)
      - Chemical
        
        high O₂ in fast headwaters; nutrients increase downstream
      - Heterotrophs
        
        fish, insects, detritivores
      - Physical
        
        flowing water; speed affects clarity & sediment
    - - Geologic
        
        deltas, bays, drowned river valleys
      - Chemical
        
        variable salinity; nutrient-rich
      - Autotrophs
        
        phytoplankton, marsh grasses
      - Heterotrophs
        
        crabs, fish nurseries, oysters, birds
      - Physical
        
        where rivers meet ocean; brackish; tidal influence
    - - Geologic
        
        rocky shores, sandy beaches, mudflats
      - Autotrophs
        
        algae, seagrasses
      - Chemical
        
        variable salinity and oxygen
      - Heterotrophs
        
        barnacles, mussels, crabs, shorebirds
      - Physical
        
        alternately exposed & submerged
    - - Autotrophs
        
        phytoplankton
      - Geologic
        
        water column, far from shore; no firm substrate
      - Chemical
        
        high oxygen, low nutrients
      - Physical
        
        open ocean, deep water, strong light gradient
      - Heterotrophs
        
        fish, squid, jellyfish, marine mammals
    - - Geologic
        
        calcium carbonate skeletons from corals
      - Chemical
        
        low nutrients, stable salinity
      - Physical
        
        shallow, warm, clear photic waters
      - Autotrophs
        
        zooxanthellae (algal symbionts), algae
      - Heterotrophs
        
        reef fish, invertebrates, echinoderms
    - - Geologic
        
        sediments, trenches, mid-ocean ridges, hydrothermal vents
      - Autotrophs
        
        chemosynthetic bacteria at vents
      - Chemical
        
        low oxygen in deep sediments; variable nutrients
      - Heterotrophs
        
        worms, crustaceans, sea stars, deep-sea fish
      - Physical
        
        ocean floor; cold; high pressure in deep regions
  - - - Moist air blown inland hits mountains
        
        Windward side
        
        air rises → cools → rains → lush vegetation (often conifers/forests)
        
        Example: west side of Rockies = temperate rainforest
        
        Leeward side
        
        dry air descends → warms → absorbs moisture → desert/grassland
        
        Example: Nevada & east side of Rockies = drier, fewer trees
      - Explains why
        
        one side may have evergreen conifer forests
        
        other side has shrubs/grass (less water, more sun)
    - - Water has high specific heat → buffers temperature swings
      - Coastal areas → milder winters, cooler summers
      - Warm currents (e.g., Gulf Stream) → warm nearby continents
      - Cold currents → cool coastal regions, affect fog patterns
    - - Dense vegetation:
        
        increases humidity via transpiration
        
        provides shade; cools surface
        
        builds organic-rich soil
      - Deforestation or land clearing:
        
        increases surface heating and runoff
        
        can alter local rainfall patterns
        
        reduces transpiration
    - - Microclimate → climate on a very small scale
        
        under a log, within leaf litter, within a forest canopy vs forest floor
      - Different light, temperature, moisture at different heights:
        
        canopy vs understory vs floor
  - - - Movement of individuals or gametes from birth site
      - Determines potential range of species
    - - Temperature extremes
      - Moisture availability
      - Soil type & nutrients
      - Salinity
      - Sunlight/light intensity
    - - Competitors
      - Parasites/pathogens
      - Missing mutualists (pollinators, mycorrhizae)
      - Predators
    - - Deserts
      - Climate zones
      - Oceans
      - Human fragmentation
      - Mountains
    - - Pine trees (wide distribution)
        
        not dependent on very specific mutualists
        
        wind-dispersed seeds
        
        tolerate cold; broad soil tolerance
      - Kaibab squirrel (restricted)
        
        sensitive to competitors/predators or habitat changes
        
        limited dispersal ability
        
        specialized habitat on Kaibab Plateau
  - - - Latitude
        
        horizontal lines; 0° at equator; measure N/S
      - Longitude
        
        vertical lines; 0° at Prime Meridian; measure E/W
      - Equator
        
        direct sunlight, warm
      - Poles
        
        low-angle light, energy spread out → cold
    - - Earth tilt → 23.5° from vertical
      - Seasons are NOT caused by distance to sun
      - June solstice (June 21)
        
        N hemisphere tilted toward sun
        
        Sun overhead at Tropic of Cancer (23.5°N)
      - December solstice (Dec 21)
        
        Sun overhead at Tropic of Capricorn (23.5°S)
        
        N hemisphere tilted away
      - Equinoxes (March 20 & Sept 22)
        
        tilt perpendicular to sun
        
        day ≈ night; sun overhead at equator
      - Equator
        
        minimal seasonal variation (sun angle barely changes)
    - - Sunlight
        
        energy source; drives photosynthesis & warming
      - Temperature
        
        controls metabolic rates; defines biome boundaries
      - Precipitation
        
        water availability; key to vegetation type
      - Wind
        
        moves air masses, influences evaporation & currents
    - - Warm, moist air rises at:
        
        0° (equator) → tropical rainforests
        
        60° N/S → temperate rainforests
      - Cool, dry air sinks at:
        
        30° N/S → hot deserts
        
        90° N/S → polar deserts
      - Rising air
        
        cools
        
        condenses water → rain (low pressure)
      - Sinking air
        
        warms
        
        absorbs moisture → dryness (high pressure)
    - - Wind direction
        
        air moves from high to low pressure
      - Uneven heating + Earth’s rotation create major wind belts
      - From above N Pole → Earth spins counterclockwise
      - Coriolis effect:
        
        N hemisphere
        
        moving air/water deflected right → clockwise gyres
        
        S hemisphere
        
        deflected left → counterclockwise gyres
      - Trade Winds (0–30°)
        
        east → west; return flow toward equator
      - Westerlies (30–60°)
        
        west → east; dominate mid-latitudes
      - Doldrums (equator)
        
        calm, rising air; low wind; intense thunderstorms
    - - Weather
        
        short-term atmospheric conditions (today/this week)
      - Climate
        
        long-term patterns & averages in an area
  - - - Biotic
        
        living components
        
        predators, prey, plants, competitors, parasites, pathogens
      - Abiotic
        
        nonliving components
        
        temperature, light, moisture, soil, salinity, nutrients
    - - Ecosystem ecology
        
        energy flow + nutrient cycling between biotic & abiotic
      - Community ecology
        
        interactions among species (competition, predation, mutualism)
      - Organismal ecology
        
        how individual’s physiology/behavior cope with environment
        
        Example: Jane Goodall studying specific chimp groups
      - Population ecology
        
        population size, birth/death rates, immigration/emigration
      - Landscape ecology
        
        patchiness, corridors, habitat mosaics; human land use
      - Global ecology (biosphere ecology)
        
        Earth as one system; global climate change, biogeochemical cycles
    - - study of how organisms interact with each other and with their environment
      - Environment = biotic + abiotic factors
  - - - Plate tectonics → mountains → wind/rain patterns → biomes
      - Volcanism → short and long-term CO₂ changes
    - - Solar energy + rotation + atmosphere → climate
      - Climate → shapes biomes (terrestrial & aquatic)
      - Biomes → determine which species can live & evolve there
      - Species → in turn modify environment (vegetation, nutrient cycles)
- - - - Classical Conditioning
        
        Neutral stimulus predicts meaningful event
        
        Pavlov’s dogs (bell → salivation)
      - Simple Associations
        
        Flatworms learn maze cues or light–shock pairing
      - Definition
        
        Forming links between stimuli or actions + outcomes
      - Examples
        
        Pavlov’s dogs
        
        Flatworms (light–dark, reward–shock)
    - - Features
        
        Flexible, promotes exploration
      - Definition
        
        Behavior modified by rewards or punishments
      - Connections
        
        Basis of optimal foraging
      - Examples
        
        Dog tricks (roll over, fetch)
        
        Bears learning fishing spots
        
        Crow (vending machine)
    - - Features
        
        Irreversible; needs correct timing + cue
      - Connections
        
        Foundation for social bonding & migration
      - Examples
        
        Salmon: chemical imprinting of natal stream
        
        Geese (gliders): adopt migration leader
        
        Ducklings & cat: follow first moving object
      - Definition
        
        Learning during a sensitive period (critical period)
        
        long-lasting attachment or recognition
    - - Examples
        
        anemone stops retracting
        
        birds ignore everyday noises
        
        wild animals ignore non-threatening humans
      - Definition
        
        Reduced response to repeated, irrelevant stimulus
    - - Definition
        
        Sequence of unlearned actions; triggered by a sign stimulus; carried to completion
      - Key Features
        
        Genetically hard-wired; stereotyped
      - Connections
        
        Stimulus–response chains; strong genetic basis
      - Examples
        
        Anole lizard: dewlap + push-up display
        
        Bullfrog: standardized call sequences
        
        Jeweled wasp: sting–groom–drag–lay sequence
        
        Stickleback fish: attack red belly models
    - - Examples
        
        Starlings: murmuration
        
        Bear cubs: copy mother
        
        Koko: imitation & sign language
        
        Chimps: termite fishing, nut cracking
      - Connections
        
        Enables rapid inheritance of survival strategies
      - Features
        
        Basis of culture
      - Definition
        
        Learning by watching others
    - - Definition
        
        Problem solving via mental processing
      - Features
        
        Requires reasoning, planning
      - Connections
        
        Highest cognitive learning category
      - Examples
        
        Crow (wire hook): tool modification
        
        Koko: problem-solving tasks
        
        Octopus: opens jars, escapes
    - - Definition
        
        Present at birth, developmentally fixed, low environmental influence
      - Features
        
        Fast, reliable, often crucial to survival
      - Connections
        
        Foundation for FAPs, migration, maternal care
      - Examples
        
        Bullfrog calls: seasonal mating calls
        
        Cat maternal care: grooming ducklings
        
        Beavers: instinctive dam building (stimulus: water flow; effect: stable water)
        
        Parasitic worm effects: innate physiological hijacking
        
        Lemmings: mass migration (stimulus: overcrowding; effect: resource search)
  - - - Courtship
        
        Displays, dances, vocalizations
      - Mating Systems
        
        Polyandry
        
        Female bonds to multiple males
        
        Promiscuity
        
        Polygyny
        
        Male bonds to multiple females
        
        Monogamy
        
        Male bonds to one female
      - Sexual Selection
        
        Intersexual → mate choice
        
        Intrasexual → female choice (male competition)
      - Examples
        
        Bower bird bowers
        
        Riflebird displays
        
        Red-capped manakin “moonwalk”
        
        Anole dewlap display
        
        Fiddler crab waving claw
        
        Bullfrog calls
    - - Parental Care
        
        Feeding, guarding, teaching
      - Kin Selection
        
        Helping relatives → boosts indirect fitness
      - Examples
        
        Ground squirrel alarms
        
        Bee hive defense
        
        Cat caring for ducklings
    - - Components
        
        Search → evaluate → capture → handle food
      - Optimal Foraging
        
        Maximize: energy gained ÷ time & risk
      - Examples
        
        Octopus solving food puzzles
        
        Bears changing diet seasonally
        
        Crows using vending machines
        
        Sunbird defending nectar
    - - Examples
        
        Lemming migration
        
        Salmon migration
        
        Bee dance communication
      - Communication
        
        Bee waggle dance
        
        Group movements
      - Rhythms
        
        Daily, lunar, seasonal timing
      - Migration
        
        Genetic programs + imprinting cues
    - - Tactics
        
        Startling displays
        
        Alarm calls
        
        Mimicry, camouflage
        
        Hiding, fleeing, freezing
      - Defensive Specializations
        
        Physical
        
        spines, armor, toxins
        
        Behavioral
        
        intimidation, feigning death
      - Examples
        
        Musk oxen circle
        
        Starlings murmuration
        
        Gazelle stotting
        
        Ground squirrel alarm calls
        
        Hognose snake (death-feigning)
  - - - Behavioral variation → affects survival or reproduction → passed on
        
        Evolutionary pathways
        
        learning/cultural transmission
        
        combined systems (imprinting, tool use, courtship templates)
        
        genetic inheritance of tendencies
    - - Signal
        
        cue from sender → receiver modifies behavior
      - Modalities
        
        visual, auditory, chemical (pheromones), tactile
      - Used in
        
        mating, territory, alarm, coordination
    - - Innate components
        
        genetically programmed patterns
      - Learned components
        
        shaped by experience
      - Most behaviors = mix (interaction)
    - - Proximate (“How?”)
        
        sensory triggers, hormones, nerve circuits
      - Ultimate (“Why?”)
        
        increases survival, reproduction, or fitness
    - - Controlled by nervous + endocrine systems
      - Studied in behavioral ecology
        
        links behavior to survival & reproduction
      - Behavior
        
        coordinated response to internal/external stimuli