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DavidRascon51-52.pdf - Coggle Diagram

- - - - Solar Energy and Latitude
        
        Higher latitudes receive slanted, diffuse light
        
        Creates temperature differences across Earth
        
        Sunlight hits the tropics most directly
      - Global Air Circulation
        
        Warm, wet air rises at the equator → heavy rainfall
        
        Dry air descends at 30° N/S → deserts
        
        Rising air at 60° N/S → precipitation
        
        Cold, dry air descends at poles → cold, dry climate
      - Global Wind Patterns
        
        Earth’s rotation deflects winds
        
        Trade winds blow east → west in tropics
        
        Westerlies blow west → east in temperate zones
    - - Seasonality
        
        Caused by Earth’s tilt
        
        Affects day length, sunlight angle, temperature
        
        Creates wet/dry seasons in tropics
        
        Causes ocean upwelling that boosts productivity
      - Bodies of Water
        
        Oceans moderate climate (high heat capacity)
        
        Currents warm or cool nearby land
        
        Coastal areas wetter and milder than inland
      - Mountains
        
        Windward side: rising air cools → rain
        
        Leeward side: dry descending air → rain shadow deserts
        
        South-facing slopes warmer/drier than north-facing
        
        Higher elevations mimic colder latitudes
      - Vegetation Effects
        
        Forests absorb more sunlight
        
        High transpiration → cooler temps, more rain
        
        Deforestation leads to hotter, drier climate
      - Microclimate
        
        Localized climate patterns created by:
        
        shade, soil moisture, wind patterns, rocks, fallen logs
        
        Forests buffer temperature extremes
    - - Greenhouse Gas Increase
        
        Fossil fuels + deforestation increase CO₂
        
        Earth has warmed ~1.0°C since 1900
        
        Expected to warm 2–4°C more by 2100
      - Effects on Species Ranges
        
        Species migrate north or upslope
        
        Example: American beech shift northward
        
        Many species cannot migrate fast enough
        
        Results: shrinking ranges, extinctions, community disruption
  - - - Climate Determines Biome Location
        
        Climographs show annual temp/precip patterns
        
        Similar rainfall but different temperatures → different forests
        
        Deserts: lowest precipitation
        
        Grasslands: intermediate precipitation
      - Variability Matters
        
        Averages hide seasonal differences
        
        Some regions have year-round precipitation
        
        Others have strong wet/dry seasons → different vegetation
    - - Vegetation Structure
        
        Named for dominant plants and climate
        
        Vertical layers: canopy, tree layer, shrubs, ground plants, forest floor, roots
        
        Non-forest biomes have simpler layers
      - Ecotones
        
        Transitional zones between biomes
        Can be narrow or wide
      - Species CompositionVaries regionally
        Convergent evolution produces similar forms in different continents
    - - any event that removes organisms or alters resources
        Examples: storms, fires, human activity
      - Ecological Effects
        
        Creates patchy landscapes
        
        Opens space for new species
        
        Fire-dependent biomes: grasslands, savannas, chaparral, some conifer forests
        
        Fire suppression can harm natural communities
  - - - Marine vs Freshwater
        
        Marine: 3% salt
        
        Freshwater: <1% salt
        
        Oceans cover ~75% of Earth
      - Biosphere Influence
        
        Oceans generate rainfall
        
        Marine photosynthesizers produce oxygen
        
        Oceans regulate climate
    - - Light Zones
        
        Photic zone: enough light for photosynthesis
        
        Aphotic zone: little light
        
        Pelagic zone: open water (photic + aphotic)
        
        Abyssal zone: deep ocean (~2000–6000 m)
        
        Benthic zone: bottom substrate with benthos and detritus
      - Thermocline
        
        Narrow layer of rapid temperature change
        
        Lakes and oceans stratified by temperature
        
        Turnover mixes water in spring and fall
    - - Lakes
        
        Oligotrophic: nutrient-poor, oxygen-rich
        
        Eutrophic: nutrient-rich, oxygen-poor
        
        Rooted plants in littoral zone
        
        Phytoplankton in limnetic zone
      - Wetlands
        
        Water-saturated soil
        
        Low oxygen
        
        Among most productive biomes
        
        Filters pollutants and reduces flooding
      - Streams and Rivers
        
        Headwaters: cold, fast, clear
        
        Downstream: warm, turbid, wide
        
        Oxygen high in fast-moving water
      - Estuaries
        
        Transition between river and sea
        
        Salinity varies
        
        Highly productive and critical for many species
  - - - Natural Range Expansions
        
        Cattle egret spread from Africa → Americas
        Dispersal allows colonization of new habitats
      - Adaptive Radiation
        
        Long-distance dispersal can trigger speciation
      - Species Transplants
        
        If transplanted species survives + reproduces → potential range is larger
    - - Interactions Limiting Distribution
        
        Predation
        
        Herbivory
        
        Competition
        
        Pathogens
        
        Absence of pollinators or food
        
        Example: sea urchins limit seaweed cover
      - Abiotic Factors
        
        Temperature
        
        Too cold → freezing damage
        
        Too hot → protein denaturation
        
        Climate change shifts species ranges
        
        Example: sea urchin expansion into Tasmania
        
        Water and Oxygen
        
        Terrestrial species risk desiccation
        
        Aquatic oxygen varies with depth and temperature
        
        Flooded soils have low oxygen
        
        Salinity
        
        Affects water balance via osmosis
        
        Freshwater vs marine restrictions
        
        Salt flats exclude most organisms
        
        Sunlight
        
        Limits photosynthesis
        
        Forest understory shaded
        
        Water absorbs red/blue light → photosynthesis near surface
        
        UV radiation at high elevations damages DNA → tree line
        
        Rocks and Soil
        
        pH, mineral composition, and structure affect plant survival
        Soil chemistry affects nutrient availability
  - - - Ecology → Evolution
        
        Changing ecosystems shape selective pressures
        
        Plant origin altered carbon cycling
        
        Plant diversification created new food webs
      - Ecology
        
        New species alter habitats
        Speciation affects nutrient cycles and community structure
    - - Sub-branch: Ecological Change Causes Evolution
        
        Mosquitofish changes under predation levels
        Apple maggot fly host shift
      - Evolution Causes Ecological Change
        
        New traits alter feeding, competition, and community dynamics
    - - Rapid Evolution
        
        Occurs within years to decades
        
        Soapberry bug beak evolution
        
        Hybrid sunflower formation
      - Trinidadian Guppies
        
        Low predation guppies eat algae → reduce algae
        
        High predation guppies eat invertebrates → increase algae
        
        Evolution of guppy behavior changes entire stream ecosystem
- - - - How
        
        stimuli triggering behavior
        
        mechanisms (nervous, endocrine, muscular)
        
        developmental influence / experience
      - Why
        
        survival value
        
        reproductive success
        
        evolutionary history
    - - innate, unlearned sequence
      - triggered by sign stimulus
      - once started → carried to completion
      - ex: stickleback attack red belly
      - ex: moth bat-detection escape spirals
    - - long-distance movement
        cues used for navigation:
    - - Circadian (24-hour cycle)
      - Circannual (yearly cycle: migration, reproduction)
      - Lunar rhythms
    - - signal = stimulus from one organism to another
        communication = transmission + reception
      - Modes
        
        visual
        
        chemical
        
        tactile
        
        auditory
      - Fruit Fly Courtship Chain
      - Honeybee Dance Language
        
        waggle dance: direction (angle relative to sun) + distance (waggle duration)
        round dance: nearby food
      - Pheromones
        
        chemical signals
        extremely low concentration
  - - - California vs White-Footed Mice
        
        CA males: aggressive + high paternal care
        
        WF males: less aggressive + low paternal care
        
        cross-fostering alters:
        
        aggression
        paternal behavior
      - Human Twin Studies
        
        identical twins raised apart vs together
        
        genetics vs environment in human behavior
        
        applied to anxiety, schizophrenia, alcoholism
      - Learning
        
        requires memory formation
        
        nervous system organization → genetically influenced
        
        nature + nurture interact
      - Imprinting
        
        long-lasting behavioral response
        
        occurs during sensitive period
        
        examples:
        
        greylag geese imprint on first moving object
        whooping crane conservation
      - Spatial Learning
        
        memory of spatial environment
        Tinbergen’s digger wasp experiment
    - - Classical Conditioning
        
        Pavlov’s dogs
      - Operant Conditioning
        
        Skinner’s rats → lever = reward/punishmen
      - Species-Specific Learning Limits
        
        pigeons: sound = danger; cannot learn color = danger
        rats: smell = illness; cannot learn sound = illness
      - Cognition & Problem Solving
        
        awareness, reasoning, memory, judgment
        
        honeybees → “same vs different” maze
        
        primates & birds → tool use, string pulling, box stacking
    - - Bird Song Learning
        
        sensitive period: memorization
        
        subsong: practice
        
        crystallized adult song
      - Social Learning
        
        observing others
        
        chimpanzee nut-cracking
        
        vervet monkey alarm call accuracy learned via feedback
        
        foundation of culture
  - - - Drosophila foraging gene (for)
        
        R (rover) vs r (sitter) alleles
        
        low density → sitter favored
        
        high density → rover favored
        
        shows natural selection acting on behavior
      - Optimal Foraging Model
        
        cost–benefit analysis
        
        maximize energy gain
        
        minimize energy/social/predation costs
      - Northwestern Crows
        
        optimal drop height for whelks
        matches model prediction
      - Predation Risk vs Food
        
        mule deer forage in safer open areas
        
        avoid forest edges (mountain lions)
        
        safety > small food differences
    - - Mating Systems
        
        promiscuous
        
        monogamous
        
        polygynous
        
        polyandrous
        
        same-sex behavior common across species
      - Sexual Dimorphism
        
        monogamy → sexes similar
        
        polygyny → males more ornamented
        
        polyandry → females more ornamented
      - Sexual Selection
        
        Intersexual Selection (Mate Choice)
        
        females choose based on traits (songs, ornaments)
        
        Intrasexual Selection (Competition)
        
        male-male contests (agonistic behavior)
        kangaroo “boxing,” stag battles
      - Female Mate Choice Examples
        
        Stalk-Eyed Flies
        
        long eyestalks = good health & vitality
        preferred by females
        
        Zebra Finch Imprinting
        
        daughters prefer males resembling ornamented father
        sons show no preference
        
        Guppy Mate-Choice Copying
        
        females choose more orange males by default
        
        copy other female’s choice unless color difference is large
        
        form of social learning
        
        Male Competition Examples
        
        ritualized contests
        
        influences which males mate
        
        but variation may persist
      - Game Theory in Behavior
        
        Side-Blotched Lizards
        
        orange, blue, yellow throat morphs
        
        each strategy beats one & loses to another
        
        rock–paper–scissors dynamic
        
        frequency-dependent selection → cycles of dominance
  - - - Fruit Fly fru Gene
        
        master regulator
        
        directs male neural circuitry
        
        determines male courtship pattern
      - Voles & Vasopressin
        
        prairie voles: high receptor expression → pair bonding
        
        meadow voles: low expression
        
        inserting prairie receptor gene → meadow voles show bonding behaviors
    - - Garter Snakes & Banana Slugs
        
        coastal = prefer slugs
        
        inland = refuse slugs
        
        preference genetically based
        
        evolved via scent recognition advantage
      - Blackcap Migration
        
        Germany: SW migration
        
        new westward migration → genetically inherited
        
        bird feeder availability + short distance favored new behavior
        
        rapid microevolution
      - Altruism
        
        reduces own fitness
        increases fitness of others
      - Inclusive Fitness
        
        direct fitness (own offspring)
        indirect fitness (helping relatives reproduce)
    - - learning greatly influences behavior
      - play → preparation for unpredictable situations
      - sociobiology: behaviors shaped by evolutionary pressures
      - human culture/governments/ethics can override simple fitness rules
      - high capacity for reciprocal altruism