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Chapters 51-52 - Coggle Diagram

- - - - Ex. A chimpanzee can figure out to stack boxes to reach food
      - Ex. Crow using stones to get big stick to reach food
    - - Establishment of a memory that reflects the environment's spatial structure
        
        Ex. Digger wasps finding nest
    - - The process of knowing that involves awareness, reasoning, recollection, and judgement
  - - - Young chimpanzees learn how to crack open nuts by copying experienced chimpanzees
  - - - Eating, raising young, avoiding predators, sexual reproduction
- - - - Latitude - parallel to the equator
      - Tropic of cancer 23.5 north, tropic of capricorn 23.5 S
      - Sunlight strikes at a lower angle at higher latitudes
    - - Hot air rises at the equator, loses its ability to hold moisture causing rain
        
        Rains at the equator, then dry air falls at 30 degrees and absorbs moisture causing deserts
        
        Keeps happening causing rainforests at 60 degrees, and deserts at the poles
      - Air flowing close to the surface causes predictable global wind patterns
        
        Cooling trade winds blow east to west around the equator
        
        Westerlies blow west to east
        
        The earth moving through space deflects winds
    - - Earth's tilt and orbit around the sun causes seasonal changes
      - Equinox: tilt is perpendicular to the sun
        
        March equinox
        
        Equator faces sun directly
        
        September equinox
        
        Equator faces sun directly
      - Solstice: tilted towards or away from the sun
        
        December solstice
        
        Northern hemisphere tilted away from the sun, southern hemisphere tilted towards
        
        June solstice
        
        Northern hemisphere tilted towards the sun, southern hemisphere tilted away
    - - Seasonal changes in wind patterns can alter ocean currents
      - Ocean currents heat and cool air masses, influencing climate
        
        California current supports a coniferous rain forest
        
        West coast of northern Europe has a mild climate because of the Gulf Stream
        
        Gulf Stream carries warm water from the equator to the North Atlantic
        
        Possible because of water's high specific heat
        
        When land is warmer than water, air over the land rises and draws a cool breeze from the water
    - - Warm moist air approaches a mountain and rises
        
        Releases moisture on windward side (rains)
        
        Cool dry air descends on the leeward side, causing a rain shadow
        
        AKA, wet on windward side and dry on leeward side of a mountain
    - - Fine, localized climate patterns; very specific area
      - Environmental factors making shade, altering evaporation, changing wind patterns
      - Ex. Forest trees moderating microclimates
        
        Less UV, less temperature extremes
        
        Deforestation can cause higher temperatures and less precipitation
      - Ex. Logs or stones
        
        Shelter small organisms from climate changes outside from the log or stone
    - - A directional change to the global climate that lasts three decades or more
      - Accelerated by burning of fossil fuels and deforestation
      - Plants and animals have adapted to climate change in the past
        
        But, species may need help from humans to adapt now due to quicker changes
        
        Species that can't adapt decrease in size or disappear
    - - A forest darker in color than a desert or grassland will absorb more light, making it warmer
      - Transpiration is greater in forests with more vegetation, reducing Earth's surface temperature and increasing precipitation
  - - - Near the equator
      - Hot year round
      - Very wet
      - Jungle
      - Very diverse and abundant animals
    - - Found at 30 and 90 degrees
      - Very dry
      - Can be hot or cold
        
        Frozen water is still unusable
      - Very few plants and animals
        
        Lizards, bugs
    - - Between deserts and grasslands
      - Wet and dry season
      - Moderately warm
      - Grasses, small shrubs
      - Herbivores, birds
      - Catches fire
    - - 60 degrees or mountain tops
      - Wet
      - Cold
      - Conifer trees
      - Larger predators
    - - Between 30 and 60 degrees
      - Moderately wet
      - Seasonal
      - Broadleaf trees, like oaktrees
      - Diverse animals
    - - Between 60 and 90 degrees, but closer to the poles
      - Dry
      - Cold
      - Short lived small wildflowers and herbs
      - Few birds
    - - Herbivores, birds
      - Moderately warm
      - Between deserts and grasslands
      - Wet and dry season
      - Grasses, small shrubs
  - - - Land locked freshwater
      - Can sometimes be salty
      - Oligotrophic lakes
        
        Nutrient-poor, oxygen rich
        
        Less surface area relative to depth
        
        Can become eutrophic with runoff
      - Eutrophic lakes
        
        Nutrient-rich, oxygen poor
      - Rooted and floating plants in the littoral zone
        
        Phytoplankton in the limnetic zone
      - Runoff of fertilizer and wastes can cause nutrient enrichment
        
        Produces algae bloom, leading to oxygen depletion
    - - Usually freshwater
      - Swamps; lot of vegetation + very wet
      - Low oxygen
      - Basin wetlands
        
        In shallow basins; upland depressions to filled in lakes/ponds
      - Riverine wetlands
        
        Along shallow and periodically flooded banks of rivers and streams
      - Fringe wetlands
        
        Along the coasts of large lakes and seas where water flows back and forth
      - Woody plants, sphagnum mosses
      - Diverse animals
      - Draining and filling of lakes have destroyed up to 90% of wetlands in Europe
    - - Moving bodies of water
      - Salt and nutrient content increases from headwaters to mouth
      - Phytoplankton, rooted aquatic plants
      - Diverse fish
      - Pollution degrades water quality; Dams also interfere
    - - Like swamps, but salty
        
        Transition between river and sea
      - Saltmarsh grasses and algae, phytoplankton
      - Worms, oysters, crabs, fish
      - Filling, dredging, and pollution disrupt estuaries
    - - Similar to estuaries, but underwater
      - High oxygen and nutrients, replenished by tides
      - Algae, seagrass
      - Diverse animals; sponges, anemones, echinoderms, small fish
      - Oil pollution, construction disrupts
    - - Deep ocean
      - High oxygen, lower nutrients
      - Phytoplankton, zooplankton, small invertebrates
      - Risk of overfishing, pollution, acidification and global warming
    - - Shallow ocean, photic
      - Requires high oxygen levels
      - Algae
      - Corals, cniderians, fish and invertebrates; very diverse
      - Disruption from overfishing, collection of coral skeletons, global warming and pollution
    - - Bottom of the ocean
      - Sufficient oxygen
      - Algae, prokaryotes near hydrothermal vents
      - Invertebrates and fish
      - Disruption from overfishing and dumping of organic wastes
  - - - Ex. cattle egret was found only in Africa and southwestern Europe, but in the 1800's, some moved away
        
        Eventually made it to Florida with large breeding populations
        
        Long distance dispersal can cause adaptive radiations
    - - Transplant is successful = potential range is larger than actual range
        
        The species could live in areas where it currently does not
    - - Other species
    - - Temperature, water, oxygen, salinity, sunlight, soil
      - Organisms function best within a certain temperature range
        
        Temperatures outside range require more energy expenditure
        
        This is why climate change forces species to adapt
      - Terrestrial species prone to drying out
      - UV rays more intense at higher elevations; can damage DNA and proteins
  - - - Goal of evolution is to match the environment, and environments constantly change
      - Can happen even over the course of a few years or decades
    - - Ex. trinidadian guppy populations evolve quickly when predators are removed, within a few years