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BIOPSYCHOLOGY - Coggle Diagram

- - - - parasympathetic nervous system
        returns body to normal rest state after fight or flight- rest and digest
        
        blood to digestive system
        
        decreased breathing rate
        
        decreased HR
        
        constricted pupils
        
        decreased blood pressure
      - sympathetic nervous system
        involved in responses that prepare body for fight or flight response
        
        blood to vital muscles and organs
        
        increased breathing rate
        
        increased HR
        
        dilated pupils
        
        increased blood pressure
  - - - motor neurons
        
        found in CNS
        
        release neurotransmitters that bind to receptors to trigger a response in muscles and glands
        
        STRUCTURE OF MOTOR NEURONS
        
        cell body- controls neuron
        
        dendrites- recieve signals from other neurons
        
        axon- long slender fibre, carries nerve impulses in the form of action potential
        
        myelin sheath- insulates axon so impulses travel faster along axon
        
        nodes of ranvier- gaps in myelin sheath
        
        terminal button- connects neuron to other neurons or effectors using synaptic transmission
      - relay neurons
        
        found inbetween sensory and motor neurons
        
        found in CNS
        
        allow sensory and motor neurones to communicate
      - sensory neuron
        
        found in receptors
        
        carry nerve impulses to spinal cord and brain
        
        connect CNS
      - how we react to stimulus
        
        stimulus (change in environment)
        
        receptors (detect change)
        
        co-ordination centres (recieves info, process response)
        
        effector (muscle or gland that responds)
    - - synaptic transmission (neighbouring neurons communicate by sending chemical signals across the synapse that seperates them)
        
        Very Rude Rose Eats Red Rhubarb
        1) electrical impulse reaches end of axon, arrives at pre-synaptic terminal, full of VESICLES that contain neurotransmitters
        2) electrical impulse triggers RELEASE of neurotransmitter to diffuse across synapse
        3) neurotransmitters at RECEPTORS on dendrites of other neuron, chemical impulse converted to electrical, carries down axon of next neuron
        4) ENZYMES released to breakdown any neurotransmitter still in the synapse
        5) some neurotransmitter REUPTAKE, where any excess neurotransmiters reabsorbed into pre-synaptic terminal
        6) vesicles REPLENISHED
      - excitation and inhibition
        
        excitation is when connection to receptor causes electrical charge resulting in excitatory post synaptic potential- neuron more likely to fire
        
        inhibition is when connection to receptor causes inhibitory post synaptic potential, making postsynaptic cell less likely to fire
      - summation
        overall effect of excitatory and inhibitory neurotransmitters acting on a neurone, determining whether it will fire or not
  - - - person enters stressful situation
        
        amygdala sends distress signal to hypothalamus
        
        hypothalamus activates SYMPATHOMEDUALLY PATHWAY, activating symapthetic nervous system
        
        the SNS stimulates adrenal medulla in adrenal gland
        
        adrenal medulla secretes adrenaline and noradrenaline into blood
        
        adrenaline causes physiological changes
    - - GRAY 1998 adds freeze, which keeps us hypervigilant to assess situation before acting
      - TAYLOR ET AL 2002 adds females "tend and befriend", protect offspring (tend) and form alliances with other women (befriend). BETA BIAS IN OG RESEARCH
      - is fight or flight even useful in modern life? waste of energy
- - - - PHINEAS GAGE iron rod through skull, personality changes but other parts still function
        
        PATIENT HM hippocampus surgery due to epilepsy affects memory, specific part = specific function
        
        PATIENT TAN could only form words "TAN", post-mortem examination showed lesion on broca's area
      - DRONKERS ET AL other parts of brain could be responsible for Tan's inability to form words, empirical evdience against as found other parts of brain had lesions
        
        case studies ANDROCENTRIC, only focus on men and apply to everyone
        
        some functions so complex, not one area responsible e.g. language
  - - - evaluation
        
        extraneous variables e.g. diff experiences w epilepsy drugs prior to severing corpus callosum may affect ability
        
        low generalisability, small sample size of both control and experimental groups (also ctrl group no epilepsy)
        
        contradictory findings, patient JW developed ability to talk out of right hemisphere
        
        highly scientific and standardised, same variables controlled for each pptp
        
        challenges unity of consciousness debate
- - - - brain recoveries
        
        axonal sprouting- neuron with damaged axon terminals sprouts new axon terminals
        
        neuronal unmasking- dormant neurons activated to replace damaged neurons
      - constraint-induced movement therapy (CIMT)
        pptps forced to not move UNAFFECTED parts of body so have to relearn to use AFFECTED parts
        
        studies have shown cortical reorganisation from CIMT can result in regained function
        
        can help with aphasia as well as movement
        
        frustrating for patient
        
        CIMT must be intense, limb restrained 90% time for weeks
    - - MAGUIRE ET AL
        structural changes in brains of people with extensive experience as spacial navigator
        
        16 male LDN taxi drivers
        50 normal males as ctrl
        taxi drivers larger hippocampus, positive correlation w time
        brains grew where more knowledge was needed
      - ELBERT ET AL
        cortical representation, diff areas in somatosensory cortex and motor cortex represent diff body parts- is cortical reorganisation true?
        
        6 non-musicians, 9 musicians
        imaging to measure area somatosensory cortex that rep. L hand
        somatosensory cortex represented L hand larger in musicians
        more sensory processing in one part of body, bigger part of brain responsible will be
      - KARNI ET AL 1995
        practicing series of finger movements changes structure of the cortex
        
        fMRI, which parts motor cortex activated when performing movements
        larger areas motor cortex activated after 4 weeks practicing
        cortical reorganisation
  - - - SAD
        
        melatonin released due to lower light
        
        less light means more melatonin release (linked to depressive symptoms)
        
        MCCLINTOCK 1971 135 students uni halls, menstrual cycles synchronised over 4 months
        
        suggested down to pheromones
        
        exogenus zeitgebers alter infradian rhythm
        
        little empirical evidence of pheromones
    - - sleep cycle
        
        2 types of sleep
        
        REM- dreaming occurs, brainwaves similar to awake, 'paralysed'
        
        non REM- brainwaves less active, waking someone up harder, lower HR and temp
        
        DEMENT AND KLEITMAN 1957 7 males, 2 females; sleep at normal time with EEGs on scalp, when woken up non-REM 7% dreams recalled, REM 80% recalled SUPPORTS EXISTENCE OF DISTINCT STAGES OF SLEEP
        
        TUCKER ET AL 2007 significant difference between length of duration for each stage
    - - sleep-wake cycle
        
        light primary input to system
        
        light detected by eye which sends message to SupraChiasmatic Nucleus (SCN)
        
        SCN passes signal to pineal gland
        
        releases or reduces melatonin
        
        SIFFRE 1975 2 months in cave, only light artificial lamp, when returned he thought it was a month earlier than it was- IMPORTANCE OF EXOGENUS ZEITGEBERS ON CIRCADIAN RHYTHM
        
        DECOURSEY ET AL 2000 destroyed 30 chipmunks SCN, found that exp group died from weasels more, restless at night cause didn't know when to sleep SCN IMPORTANT TO SLEEP-WAKE CYCLES
        
        MORGAN 1955 bred hamsters to have circadian rhythms of 20 hrs, these SCNs into normal hamsters, also had 20 hr circadian rhythms SIGNIFICANCE ENDOGENUS PACEMAKERS
        
        issues with research into circadian rhythm
        -SIFFRE androcentric, non-generalisable
        -DECOURSEY ethics, ecological validity
- - - - high temporal resolution (1-10ms)
        
        non-invasive
      - very poor spatial res, difficult to tell which area of brain is responsible for what
    - - high spatial resolution (1-2mm)
        
        non-invasive, non-ionising radiation
        
        diff. functions happening can show disease
      - doesn't directly measure brain activity just blood flow
        
        poor temporal resolution 1-4s time lag
        
        patient must remain very still- claustrophobic
    - - no risk of death, can do whatever
        
        spatial resolution high
        
        supports broca + wernicke
      - consent, can end of life patients consent?
        
        correlation doesn't imply causation, damage alone may not cause symptoms
        
        change in brain structure could be brain decay?