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Chapter 51-52 - Coggle Diagram

- - - - the western garner snake has a variation in diet across its range in california
      - coastal snakes feed on banana slugs while inland snakes feed on frogs, leeches and fish
      - in land snakes refuses to eat banana slugs despite the snakes still being the same species
      - the preference between prey between the inland and coastal garter snakes seems to be a genetically acquired taste (in a lab the baby inland snakes would not eat the banana slugs)
  - - - if parents sacrifice themselves for offspring than it increases fitness of parents because it maximizes their genetic representation
      - altruistic behavior can be maintained by evolution even if it doesn't enhance the survival and reproductive success of the sacrificed individual
      - an animal can increase genetic representation by helping close family relatives.
      - inclusive fitness, the totall effect an individual has on proliferating both their genes and the genes of close relatives
  - - - you can measure the effect on altruism on fitness with 3 key variables
      - Natural selection favors altruism when the benefit of the recipient times the coefficient of relatedness is higher than the cost to the altruist (rB>C)
      - And the coefficient of relatedness (r= fraction of genes on average shared)
      - the cost to the altruist (how many fewer offspring the altruist produces)
      - the benefit to recipient (average number of extra offspring that the recipient of altruism produces)
- - - - Temperature
      - rain (precipitation)
      - Sunlight
      - Wind
      - Global, region, and local levels
    - - Global climate patterns depend on how much energy the sun is hiiting us with, and our movement through space
        
        sun heats atmosphere,land and water
        
        this warming makes temperature variations between all 3
        
        movements of air, water and evaporation of water cause latitidinal variations in climate
      - Exploring global climate patterns
        
        sunlight intensity caries based on latitude
        
        sunlight strikes the tropics (areas near the equator) more directly (more heat and light per surface area delivered there)
        
        at higher latitudes sunlight strikes at oblique angles (light energy is more diffuse
        
        Global air circulation and precipitation
        
        intense solar radiation near equator starts the global pattern of air circulation and rain
        
        high temperatures in tropics evaporates water making it rise and go towards the poles
        
        as air rises it expands and cools, they release (alot of their water) this makes it rain alot near tropic areas
        
        high altitude air masses descend around 30 degrees north and south absorbing moisture from the land as they cool
        
        this sucking of moisture from land creates an arid climate which can lead to development of desserts (more common at these latitudes) (30 degrees)
        
        some of the descending air flow towards the poles, at latitude 60 north and south the air masses rise and release alot of water (but less than tropics)
        
        Some cold, dry rising air then flows to the poles , where it foes back down and towards equator, making the cold rainless environments at the poles
        
        both south and north trades winds go east to west while werterflies go west to east
    - - climate varies with seasons, can be modified by factors like bodies of water and mountain ranges
      - Seasonality
        
        in middle or high latitudes (north hemisphere and south hemispheres farther parts from equator), earths tilted axis and passage around sun makes strong seasonal cycles
        
        day length
        
        solar radiation
        
        temperature
        
        changing angle of sun over a year affects local environments
        
        belts of air moving slighly north or south make marked wet and dry seasons
        
        around 20 degrees north and south marked wet and dry seasons. this is where alot of tropical decidious rain forest grow, they are warm just like tropical rain forest but have dry and wet seasons (unlike tropical rainforest mainly almost wet because it rains alot)
        
        seasonal changes in wind patterns alter ocean currens
        
        these ocean currents bring cold water from deep ocean up to surface, rich in nutrients this stimulates growth of phytoplankton and things that feed on them
        
        upwelling zones are the source of 25% of all fish caught globally
      - Bodies of water
        
        Ocean currents influence climate along coast of continents by heating or colling air masses across land
        
        Coastal regions are wetter than inland areas even if they are at the same latitude
        
        cool misty climate produced by cold california current that flows southward along west N.A supports alot of coniferous rain forest ecosystem along the continents pacific coast
        
        west coast of north Europe has mild climate because gulf stream carries warm water from equator to the north atlantic
        
        north western europe is warmer during winter, than south eatern canada
        
        because of specific heat of water, oceans and large lakes moderate climate of nearby land
        
        during hot day, land is warmer than water, the air over land heats and rises, drawing in cool breese from water across to the land
        
        at night, temperature drops faster on land than of water , so air over warmer water rises, drawing cooler air from land back towards and over the water replacing the rising warm air
        
        local moderation of climate can be limited to coast it self
        
        in Southern california and south australia, cool dry ocean breezes in summer are warmed when they contact land, absorbing the moisture and creates a hot arid environment a few km inland
    - - cool air flows inland from waterto shore (moderate temperature
      - air encounters mountains and flows up, cools down at higher latitudes making it rain
      - the air that went up the mountain, has less moisture and is cooler now so it sinks on the other side of the mountain
      - this less moisture in the air the other side of the mountain makes it rain less (rain shadow) can make desserts
    - - March equinox earth equinox earth faces sun directly, neither pole faces sun
      - september equinox neither equator tilts
      - December solstice, nothern hemisphere tilts away from sun nights are long
      - summer solstice, northern hemisphere tilts towards the sun making days long
    - - organisms can affect climate (forest) can alter climate at local and regional scale
      - forest is darker in color than a dessert or grassland(forest absorb mor solar energy)
      - earths surface can heat up in foresty areas
      - offset by transpiration, evaporative loss of water from a plant to cool the plants surface
      - Forests reduce earths surface temperature, and increase precipitation rates (climate became drier and hotter where humans cut down large forest)
      - more vegetation= more photosynthesis= more transpiration=lower temps and more rain from eveporated water
      - Deforested= less solar radiation absorbed= less photosynthesis=less transpiration= higher temps and less rain
    - - climate at a even smaller scale ( at specific area, valleys, hill tops etc)
      - Factors effecting micro climate. casting shade (change evaporation from soil), changing wind patterns.
        
        forest tress often moderate microclimate below them
        
        cleared areas usually experience higher temp extremes than forest interior because more sun and wind happen due to rapid healing and cooling of land
        
        In a forest low lying ground is usually wetter than higher ground and tree species differ based on ground level
    - - climate variables affect where plants and animals live, any large scale change in earth climate affects the biosphere ALOT
      - Increase of green house gases contributes to climate change (directional change of earths climate for 3 decades or more
      - Earth has warmed an avg of 1.1 C since 1900, and is expected to rise 3.5C by 2100
      - Wind and precipitation patterns are shifting and storms/droughts are happening more frequently
      - as climate melts glaciers animals can move up north more
      - species might not be able to keep up with the rapid climate change
      - european butterflies had to shift several km up as result of climate change, and alot of plants have moved to lower elvetions due to lack of water
      - when climate change forces species to move to new areas, this could effect the animals already living there
      - climate change is causing alot of species to decrease or disappear
  - - - climate is a major factor in determining locations of terrestial biomes
      - importance of climate on distribution of species is shown by a climograph (measures annualmean temp and rain)
      - Factors other than mean temperature and rain also play a role on where biomes exist (specific areas have may have similar temp and rain but support different biomes)
      - pattern of climate variation is more important than average climate (some areas get regular rain wile other have wet/dry seasons)
    - - Tropical forest: high rain fall. hot year round, high vegetaion and high biodiversity, equatorial regions tropical dry forest about half rainforest and with 6-7 month dry season, competion
      - Savanna: between desserts and grassland dry and wet seasons, grass land, warm temperature, big night day difference, plants grass and shrubs, animals lots of large predators and lots of herbivores
      - Dessert: near 30 north and south very dry either very hot or very cold, low widely scattered vegetation dominated by things like reptiles and cacti or euphorbs
      - Chaparral:mid latitude coastal regions rain highly seasonal charcterized by fires (maybe caused by lighting), temperature fall winter spring are cool, max summer day time tem can exceed 40C, dominated by small shrubs and trees, animals alot of reptiles and some deer and goats
      - temperate grass land: equitorial and sub equatorial, seasons, grass land moderately wet ,30-50cm rain per year, warm, scattered trees (often thorny), large plant eating animals and large predators
      - temperate broadleaf: 30-60 degrees, seasonal fairly wet , seasonal temp dominant plants broadleaf trees dominant animals small prey, lots of insects birds and rodents
      - Northern coniferous forest: 60 degrees n/s dominated by conifers, Ever greens like pine, spruce and fir, needle leaves temp is cold animals large animals like elk moose and bears
      - Tundra: dound 60-90 of equator close to poles typically cold most water frozen fairly dry, pretty cold plants, low growing cold resistant plants, animals herbivores and some birds not alot of animals
    - - terrestriabiome named after major climate and dominant vegetation
      - vertical layering
        
        upper canopy
        
        low tree layer
        
        shrub understory
        
        ground layer of herbaceous planats( plants without woody stems above ground)
        
        and forest floor (litter layer)
      - species compostion varies in N.A taiga red spruce is common but does not occur in most other areaswhere black and red spruce are dominanant
      - some species may look similar but that only due to convergent evolution (Cacti of N.A and S.A, with euphrobs in africa)
    - - biomes are dynamic, disturbance is common (storms, fire, or human activity)
      - some disturbances can lead to the rise of certain species (hurricane katrina hits mixed swamped forest and bald cypress tree dominate because they were resistant to wind damage
      - in many biomes dominant species depend on periodic disturbance( without fire conifers started getting replaced by broad leaf trees in the U.S )
  - - - freshwater biomes are influenced by patterns and speed of water flow
      - many aquatic biomes are physically and cheically layered (horizontal and vertical)
      - Upper photic zone: region where there is light for photosynthesis
      - aphotic zone: region where little light penetrates
      - Photic+ aphotic zone= pelagic zone
      - deep in aphotic zone: abyssal zone 2000-6000m below the surface
      - benthic zone: the bottom of a body of water
      - dead organic matter (dentritus) rains down from photic zone and serves as food for animals at the bottom
      - Thermal energy from sunlight warms surface wawter to water depth light penetrates, (deeper waters are pretty cold)
      - thermocline separates warm water on the top layer from cold water in the lower layer
      - lakes undergo semiannual mixing of cold and warm waters with seasons called turn over (sends oxygenated water from lakes surface to bottom and bring nutrient rich water from bottom to surface
      - in both fresh water and marine environments, communities are distributed via water depth, light penetration and distance from shoer
      - plankton and many fish live in the shallow photic zone
      - Most of oceans water is dark (aphotic zone)
    - - in winter coldest water lies below the surface ice, water get warmer the deeper you go
      - Spring their is no thermal layers and its evenly mixed. winds help mix water of bottom to top
      - summer lake regains thermal layers, warm surfacw water is separated from cold bottom layer via a thermocline
      - autumn surface water cools rapidly, sinking to underlying layersm remixing happens until surface surface freezes and winter temp profile is reached
    - - Lakes: in land and usually fresh water
      - wetlands edges of bodies of water, its fresh water and swampy
      - streams and rivers: moving bodies of water
      - estuaries: wetlands that are both fresh and salt water, where rivers and streams meet the ocean, fresh water comes from river and salt from ocean, depending on tide resultant mixed water can either be less or more salty depending on tide of ocean ( high tide= more salt)
      - interstidal zones: aquatic tides, rocky, dry and wet coast (depend on tide)
      - ocean pelagic zone: out in deep water
      - Coral reef: photic zone (because coral require light) out from coast but not too far
      - marine benthic zone: bottom of ocean, volcanic vents, has mud and decaying organisms
  - - - dispersal is movement of individuals or gametes away from their area of origin/ dense population density (some animals can disperse easier than others like birds
      - Natural Range of expansions and adaptive radiations
        
        range expansion: organisms reach a area where they didnt exist before.
        
        cattle egrets used to only be found in africa and southestern europe, but once they crossed the atlantic ocean they colonized N.A and central america
        
        long distance dispersal can lead to adaptive readiation. ( rapid evolution of ancestral to fill in niches)
        
        hawaiian silve swords are a example of adaptive radiation made possible by long range dispersal of tarweeds from north america
        
        observing dispersal affects directly is rare so we rely on expirements
      - Species transplants
        
        ecologist can observe intentional or accidental transplants of species to determine if dispersal is a key limiting factor to the distribution of a species
        
        species introduced to new locations have disrupted communities and ecosystem of said location (invasive species)
    - - predators or herbivores can limit the distribution of a species (ex: where there are alot of seas urchids here arent alot of seas weeds
      - when sea urchid was removed from expiremental plits the seas weed's core increased dramatically, so sea urchids decreases distribution of sea weeds
      - presence or absence of pollinators. food. parasite, pathogens, and competing organisms can act as niotic limitation on species distribution
    - - temperature, water, oxygen, salinity, sunlight, etc can all affects species distribution
      - ifphysical conditions dont let a species survive and reproduce than they wont be their
      - variations of abiotic factors change alot depending on season it might either blur or accentuate regional distinctions
      - temperature
        
        cells rupture if temperatures are below 0 degrees celsius, and most proteins denature at 45C organisms typically animals thrive in specific temperature ranges anything outside of it will force the animal to spend energy on maintaining homeostasis
        
        climate change has caused species to alter their geologic, this shift can also severely affect the distribution of andother species ( sea urchids range expanded south so where algae used to be are now gone)
      - water and oxygen
        
        species living at sea shore or in tidal wet lands can dry out if tide recedes
        
        distribution of terrestrial species hinges on their ability to get water
        
        water affects oxygen availability, aquatic environments and flooded soils (slow diffusion of water limits cellular respiration)
        
        low water concentrations in deep ocea/ lake waters
        
        mangroves and other trees evolved roots to go above water for O2
      - Salinity
        
        salt concentration of water in environment affects the water balance of organisms through osmosis
        
        most aquatic organisms are limited to either salt or fresh water environments
        
        terrestrial organisms can get rid of excess salts through scialized glands, feces or urine, but sometimes concentration of salt is so high that only certain plants and animals can live there
        
        salmon that migrate from fresh water to salt water can use both behaviour and physiological mechanisms to cope with solute concentration change
      - Sunlight
        
        sunlight provides the energy that drives most ecosystems
        
        too little sunlight= less plants/ photo synthetic organisms
        
        in forest competition for light is intense especially for seddling on forest floor
        
        in ocean photosynthesis can only occur near water surface
        
        too much light can limit survival of organisms too
        
        in desserts high light levels can increase temperature stress if animals cant find a way to cool down
        
        higher elveations= more UV light= higher chance for DNA and proteins to get damaged because ther is less atmosphere to absorb UV
        
        Uv lradiations and other abiotic stress make it so trees cant survive above a certain elevation ( this results in the apperance of a tree line on mountains)
      - Rocks and soil
        
        in terrestrial environments, pH, mineral composition and physical structure of rocks/ soil limit distribution of plants and therefore animals that eat them
        
        Ph of soil con limitthe distribution of organisms if it is extremely acidic or basic or indirectly if it affects the solubility of toxins and nutrients
        
        low pH means soil phosporous in insoluble which makes a precipitate plants cant use
        
        in river, the composition of rocks and soil make up the river bed can affect water chemistry, which effects resident organisms
        
        in fresh water and marine environments the structure of the substrate determines organism that can attach to it or burrown into it
- - - - What stimulus triggers the behavior? and how do the many body systems make the behavior happen
      - HOw does the animal experience during growth and development affect the response to the stimulus
      - HOw does the behaviour aid, survival and reproduction?
      - what is the behaviours evolutionary history
    - - behavioural response to a specific stimuli (pre programmed)
      - male sickle backs have red under bellies and attack other males in their territory
      - male stickle backs also acted agressively when a red truck passed in view of their tank
      - timbergen noticed that stickle backs only attack in response to the red color found in other male stickle backs (male sticklebacks dont attack fish without the red color)
      - this is a fixed action pattern a innate sequence of acts that are linked to a simple/specific stimulus
    - - environmental stimuli not only trigger behaviours but also cues to carry out behaviours
      - alot of birds, fishes, and other animals use environmental cues to determine when and how to migrate ( long distance, regular change in location)
      - some animals have a built in gps through the suns position relative to earth's throughout the day
      - animals can adjust these changes with a circadian clock (internal clock with 24 hour periodicity)
      - migrating birs orient differently relative to the sun at diffferent times of the day
      - noctornal animals can use the north star t guide them because it has a constant position in the night sky
      - researchers discovered that pigeons sense their position relative to earths magnetic field so they can navigate without solar or celestial clues
  - - - 4 modes, visual, chemical, tactile, and auditory
      - fruit fly courtship is made up of a stimulus response chain (each stimulus is a stimulus for the next behaviour)
      - male detects female and b=point his body towards hers (visual)
      - the male then smells the female to confirm she is of the same species (chemical)
      - once confirmed the a=male touches the female with his fore leg (tactitle)
      - once the female is aware of his presence the male has to confirm if he is from the same species by making asong with his wing (auditory)
      - only then will the female allow a copulation attempt
      - in general, form of communication that evolves is closely related to the lifestyle/ environment of the animal ( most terrestrial animals are noctornal= visual displays not good)
      - olfactory and auditory signals aare more effective in dark
      - humans and birds are diurnal which means we primarily use visual and auditory communication
      - the content of animal communication varies considerably, like honey bees can use dances to communicate which scientist con frisch to decipher it
      - whwen foregers get back to the hive they begin dancing to communicate to other bees direction and distance of food sources,in relation to the hive
      - the dance is performed and based on the vertical line and direction they create it, the bees go in that horizontal direction relative to the sun, the amount of abdomen waggles in the line communicate distance of food
      - if food source is close to hive bee does a different dance to advertise nectar near by
- - - - predation risk influences foraging behavior
      - mule deer feed on open areas so they can reduce predation risk, or see predators coming (major predators killed large numbers of mule deer at forest edges compared to the ones in open areas and forest interiors)
  - - - monogamous: one male mates with one female
      - Polygamous an individual of one sex mates with several of the other
      - promiscuous: no strong pair-bonds
      - males and females looking different= sexual dimorphism
      - in monogamous species males and females look similar
      - in polygamous species the sex that attracts multiple mating partners is typically showier and larger than opposite sex
    - - needs of young are important for evolution of mating systems
      - for most birds the offspring needs lots of food and a single parent makes that difficult so the males stay with the females to help raise young
      - a male that stays with and helps single mate may produce more viable off spring than it would trying to go off and seek more mates
      - pheasants maximize reproductive sucess by looking for more mates, in mammals male usually plays no role in raising young
      - in a mammalian species where male protects women and young, like lions, a male or small group of males typically care for a harem of females
      - certainty of paternity is low in birds beause acts of mating and birth are separated over time
      - even with a strong pair bond, another male other that the females usual mate may on ocasion produce offspring with that female
      - certainty of paternity are high when egg laying and mating occur together
      - this is why it is uncommon for exclusively male parental care in bird/ mammal species
      - many species with internal fertilization engage in behaviors that increase certainty of paternity like guarding females clearing sperm from female reproductive tract before copulation and introducing large amounts of sperm that displace the sperm of other males
      - certainty of paternity doesn't mean animals are aware of those factors when behaving a certain way, it exists because it was reinforced over generations of natural selection connection between certainty of paternity and male parental care is still being researched
    - - sexual dimorphism comes from sexual selection
      - difference in reproductive success are consequences of differences in mating sucess
      - intersexual selection: opposite sex chooses mates
      - intrasexual selection: competition between members of one sex
      - mate choice by females
        
        mate preferences of females play major roles in evolution of male behavior/anatomy females of stalk eyed flies choose males with lith relatively long eye stalks as a way to try and determine health/vitality
        
        mate choice can be influenced by imprinting, babies zebra finches saw parents with colorful feather on their head, so when female finches they grew up they preferred male finches with artificially ornamented heads, (female finches take cues from their male parents when choosing mates)
        
        mate choice copying
        
        individuals of population copy mate choice of others
        
        female guppies may see another "model" female guppy choose a less orange color male over a more colored one and copies the behavior
        
        mate choice copying can mask genetically controlled female preference below a certain threshhold
        
        when the difference in coloration was large;, the female guppy chose the male with the much stronger coloration even if a model female was associated with the less orange male
        
        male competition for mates
        
        female choice can select for one best type of male reducing the variation among males
        
        male competition for mates can also reduce variation among males
        
        competition may be ritualized, a contest, or agonistic behaviour
        
        Despite the potential for male competition to select for reduced variation, male variation is extremley high in some vertebrates due to sexual selection choosing alternative male mating behavior and morphology
    - - game theory evaluates alternative strategies in situations where outcome depends on the strategies of all individuals involved
      - side blotch lizard: genetic variations gave rise to males with orange, blue and yellow throats
      - each one of the throat colors is associated with different pattern of behavior
      - mating sucess of each male lizard is infuenced by the abundance of other types
      - abundance of coloration changed thoughout ta period of several years
      - rock paper scissors can explain the difference in abundance blue throats defend few females from advances of yellow but cant defend orange
      - in abundance of orange the larger number of females in each territory gives yellow throats a chance to reproduce
      - when yellow throats become more frequent they give way to blue throat that gaurd small territories
      - following population sees persistence of all 3 colors of males over time and periodic shifts between which one is more common
      - game theory gives you a way to think about complex evolutionary problems in which relative performance not absolute performance is the key to understanding the evolution of behavior of
      - game theory is important tool because relative performance of one phenotype compared with others is a measure of Darwinian fitness.