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History and Systems - Coggle Diagram

- - - - Alan Turing (1912-1956)
        
        Whether computers were or could be intelligent became the central question of cognitive science and the question was raised in its modern form by Alan Turing.
        
        In 1950, Turing published a paper “Computing Machinery and Intelligence” that defined the field of artificial intelligence and established the program of cognitive science.
        
        The paper began with “I propose to consider the question, Can machines think?
      - Turing test
        
        Given that the meaning of think was and is so unclear, Turing proposed to set his question more concretely “in terms of a game which we call the “imitation game”.
        
        In this game, an interrogator is talking via computer terminal to two respondents, another human and a computer, without knowing which is which.
        
        The game consists in asking questions designed to tell which respondent is the human and which is the computer.
        
        Turing proposed that we consider a computer intelligent when it can fool the interrogator into thinking it is a human being.
- - - - Voluntarism
        
        Wundt defined psychology as the study of consciousness, of immediate experience
        
        Wundt was NOT a Structuralist
        
        He named his approach “Ganzheit” Psychology which can be translated as “Holistic” psychology (Holism was a dominant force in German philosophy)
        
        Wundt also called his approach “voluntaristic” to underline its emphasis on mental activity and the important role of feelings and free will
        
        While he believed that complex mental events are based on simpler ones, his focus was on studying how an active synthesis of elements into a higher unity is achieved (apperception); rather than a reduction of the complex to the simple
        
        He proposed an introspective psychology but with some important qualifications:
        
        Ordinary act of introspection (and reflection) is untrustworthy and unreliable
        
        Wundt used objective measures such as reaction time, galvanic skin responses etc
    - - Mary Wilton Calkins
        
        First woman to study and satisfy requirements for a PhD at Harvard (with Wiliam James) but Harvard refused to award her a doctorate because she was a woman
        
        She was later offered a special doctorate bearing the name of Radcliffe College (at the time, the woman’s college associated with Harvard), but turned it down.
        
        In 1898 Calkins was elected as the American Psychological Association’s first female president.
      - Structuralism
        
        Structuralism can be considered a second school of psychological thought > Although Titchener studied under Wundt in Germany, most of Wundt’s teaching was discarded as he developed structuralism
        
        While still interested in the content of consciousness, structuralism aimed to discover the basic sensation-elements to which all complex processes could be reduced; elements were defined as the simplest sensations to be found in the experience
        
        An extreme form of atomism – reductive sensationalism
      - Margaret Floy Washburn
        
        First woman graduate student to earn a doctorate in psychology w/ Titchener
        
        Wrote The Animal Mind (1908) – very influential in comparative psychology
        
        First woman psychologist elected to the National Academy of Science
        
        Became president of the American Psychological Association in 1922.
      - Introspection
        
        The introspection method used by Titchener was a complicated retrospective analysis of complex experience that relied on
        
        self–observation
        
        trained observers
        
        detailed, qualitative, subjective reports of mental activities during the act of introspecting
        
        By using introspection, Titchener claimed to have discovered 44,500 basic and irreducible elements of sensation: each is conscious, distinct from all others and could combine with others to form perceptions and ideas.
        
        Also, each element could be categorised according to quality, intensity, duration and clearness.
- - - - Francis Sumner (1895 -1954)
        
        G. Stanley Hall’s last PhD student
        
        First African American psychologists
        
        Taught at Howard University, where he supervised Kenneth Clark
      - John Dewey (1859-1952)
        
        Worked under G. Stanley Hall; 1894 became chair at the University of Chicago
        
        Recognised as one of the founders of pragmatism
        
        In 1896 he published “The Reflex Arc Concept in Psychology” emphasizing the adaptive value of mind and consciousness
        
        Proposed that the three elements of the reflex (sensory processes, brain processes, motor response) must be viewed as a coordinated system directed toward a goal, usually related to the survival of the organism
        
        He criticised stimulus-response and sensation-idea dichotomies, saying that responses and ideas always occur in a functional context (child reaching for flame)
        
        A leading representative of the progressive movement in U.S. schooling during the first half of the 20th century which stated that education should be student-oriented and not subject-oriented, and students should learn by doing
      - Edward L. Thorndike (1874-1949)
        
        Worked at Columbia University and was an important force in the development of comparative psychology
        
        Nonhuman animal studies designed to elucidate the adaptive nature of behaviour, including human behaviour
        
        Famous for his puzzle box studies with cats to study trial-and-error learning
        
        He made the following conclusions
        
        Learning is incremental
        
        Learning occurs automatically
        
        Same principles of learning apply to all mammals.
        
        He argued that sensory signals and associated responses are mediated by strengthening neural connections (connectionism) via two laws: law of exercise (more frequent s-r associations are retained, less frequent lost – he later abandoned this); and law of effect (positively reinforced responses retained, negative lost)
      - Kenneth Clark (1914-2005)
        
        Known for his 1940s studies using dolls to assess children's race attitudes
        
        The work contributed to the Supreme Court ruling that racial segregation in public education was unconstitutional
      - G. Stanley Hall (1844 - 1924)
        
        Earned his doctorate in psychology under William James at Harvard, after which he spent time at Wundt's lab
        
        In 1882 (until 1888) he is appointed Prof. of Psychology and Pedagogics at Johns Hopkins where he organised the first psychology laboratory
        
        Founded the American Journal of Psychology (with E. Titchener)
        
        Interests in childhood development and evolutionary theory.
        
        First president of APA
      - Hugo Munsterberg (1863-1916)
        
        Took over James’ lab at Harvard in 1892
        
        Credited with creating Applied Psychology: studied clinical psychology and wrote books on forensic and industrial psychology