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Ecology, pelagic zone - Coggle Diagram
Ecology
Chapter 52: An Introduction to Ecology and the Biosphere
52.1: Earth’s climate varies by latitude and season and is changing rapidly
Climate
the long-term prevailing weather conditions in a given area
Four physical factors: temperature, precipitation, sunlight, and wind
Global Climate Patterns
determined largely by the input of solar energy and Earth’s movement in space
Regional and Local Effects on Climate
Climate varies seasonally and can be modified by other factors, such as large bodies of water and mountain ranges
Seasonality
In middle to high latitudes, Earth’s tilted axis of rotation and its annual passage around the sun cause strong seasonal cycles in day length, solar radiation, and temperature
Bodies of Water
Ocean currents influence climate along the coasts of continents by heating or cooling overlying air masses that pass across the land.
Mountains
When warm, moist air approaches a mountain, the air rises and cools, releasing moisture on the windward side of the peak. On the leeward side, cooler, dry air descends, absorbing moisture and producing a rain shadow
Microclimate
very fine, localized patterns in climatic conditions
Abiotic: non-living factors
influence the distribution and abundance of organisms
Biotic: Living factors
the other organisms that are part of an individual’s environment, also influence the distribution and abundance of life on Earth
Global Climate Change
climate change
a directional change to the global climate that lasts three decades or more
52.2: The distribution of terrestrial biomes is controlled by climate and disturbance
Biomes
major life zones characterized by vegetation type in terrestrial biomes
Tropical forest
Savannah
Desert
Chaparral
Temperate grassland
Temperate broadleaf forest
Coniferous forest
Tundra
Polar Ice
Climate and Terrestrial Biomes
climograph
a plot of the annual mean temperature and precipitation in a particular region
named for major physical or climatic features and for their predominant vegetation
ecotone
The transition from one type of habitat to another
canopy
The uppermost layer of vegetation in a terrestrial biome
disturbance
is an event such as a storm, fire, or human activity that changes a community, removing organisms from it and altering resource availability
52.3:Aquatic biomes are diverse and dynamic systems that cover most of Earth
aquatic biomes are characterized primarily by their physical and chemical environment
less latitudinal variation
The oceans make up the largest marine biome
Zonation in Aquatic Biomes
aquatic biomes are physically and chemically stratified, vertically and horizontally
aphotic zone
the region where little light penetrates
abyssal zone
the part of the ocean 2,000–6,000 m below the surface
benthic zone
benthos
detritus
A major source of food for many benthic species is dead organic matter
benthic zone is occupied by communities of organisms
At the bottom of all of these aquatic zones, deep or shallow
thermocline
separates the more uniformly warm upper layer from more uniformly cold deeper waters
turnover
sends oxygenated water from a lake’s surface to the bottom and brings nutrient rich water from the bottom to the surface in both spring and autumn
52.4: Interactions between organisms and the environment limit the distribution of species
Dispersal and Distribution
Dispersal: the movement of individuals or gametes away from their area of origin or from centers of high population density
kangaroos and birds
A factor that contributes greatly to the global distribution of organisms
Natural Range Expansions and Adaptive Radiation
Range Expansion
dispersal is most evident when organisms reach an area where they did not exist previously
Species Transplants
ecologists may observe the results of intentional or accidental transplants of the species to areas where it was previously absent
potential range of the species is larger than its actual range; in other words, the species could live in certain areas where it currently does not
Biotic factors: biotic factors, other species, limit the distribution of a species
urchins and seaweeds
Abiotic Factors
considers whether abiotic factors, such as temperature, water, oxygen, salinity, sunlight, or soil, might be limiting a species’ distribution
Temperature
an important factor in the distribution of organisms because of its effect on biological processes
Organisms typically function best within a specific range of environmental temperature
Water and Oxygen
Water affects oxygen availability in aquatic environments and in flooded soils, where the slow diffusion of oxygen in water can limit cellular respiration and other physiological processes
Salinity
affects the water balance of organisms through osmosis
osmosis: water passing through a semipermeable membrane from areas of high concentration to low
high-salinity habitats typically have few species of plants or animals
Sunlight
provides the energy that drives most ecosystems, and too little sunlight can limit the distribution of photosynthetic species
Rocks and Soil
the pH, mineral composition, and physical structure of rocks and soil limit the distribution of plants and thus of the animals that feed on them, contributing to the patchiness of terrestrial ecosystems
52.5: Ecological change and evolution affect one another over long and short periods of time
The history of life includes many examples of these reciprocal effects occurring over long periods of time
the evolutionary origin of plants altered the chemical cycling of carbon, leading to the removal of large quantities of carbon dioxide from the atmosphere
An ecological change, such as the expansion of a predator’s range,
can alter the selective pressures faced by prey populations.
This could cause evolutionary change, such as an increase in the frequency of a new defensive mechanism in a prey population
That change, in turn, could alter the outcome of ecological interactions
Chapter 51: Animal Behavior
51.1: Discrete sensory inputs can stimulate both simple and complex behaviors
proximate causation
how a behavior occurs or is modified
behavioral ecology
the study of the ecological and evolutionary basis for animal behavior
Migration:a regular, long-distance change in location
Behavioral Rythmns
the circadian clock : Plays a huge role in a daily cycle of rest and activity
normally synchronized with the light and dark cycles of the environment but can maintain rhythmic activity even under constant environmental conditions, such as during hibernation
circannual rhythms: Behavioral rhythms linked to the yearly cycle of seasons
Animal Signals and Communication
Claw waving by fiddler crabs during courtship
Communication:The transmission and reception of signals between animals
Signal:A stimulus transmitted from one organism to another
four common modes of animal communication
visual, chemical, tactile, and auditory
Pheromones
Animals that communicate through odors or tastes emit chemical substances
especially common among mammals and insects and often relate to reproductive behavior
Male silkworm moth receptors
Fruit fly courtship
stimulus-response chain: the response to each stimulus is itself the stimulus for the next behavior
Fixed Action Patterns
The territorial response of male sticklebacks
a sequence of unlearned acts directly linked to a simple stimulus
sign stimulus
an external cue that triggers a fixed action pattern
a red object that prompts the male stickleback’s aggressive behavior
51.2: Learning establishes specific links between experience and behavior
innate behavior
Behavior that is developmentally fixed and under strong genetic control
A cross-fostering study
the young of one species are placed in the care of adults from another species in the same or a similar environment
The extent of the offspring’s behavior changes in a situation measures how the social and physical environment influences behavior
Male California mice v.s. male white-footed mice
A twin study
How influence of genetics and environment on behavior can be observed in humans
researchers compare the behavior of identical twins raised apart with the behavior of those raised in the same household
Learning
the modification of behavior as a result of specific experiences
capacity for learning depends on nervous system organization by encoded instructions in the genome
associative learning
The ability to associate one environmental feature with another
classical conditioning: an arbitrary stimulus becomes associated with a particular outcome
Dogs drooling when hearing a bell
operant conditioning: learns to associate one of its behaviors with a reward or punishment and then tends to repeat or avoid that behavior
a rat learn through trial and error for food
social learning: learning to solve problems by observing the behavior of other individuals
Imprinting
the establishment of a long-lasting behavioral response to a particular individual or object
Ducklings following their "Mother"
Sensitive period
a specific time period in development in which imprinting will be able to successfully take place
Spatial learning
the establishment of a memory that reflects the environment’s spatial structure
Cognitive map
a representation in an animal’s nervous system of the spatial relationships between objects in its surroundings
Clark’s nutcracker, a relative of ravens, crows, and jays
Cognition: the process of knowing that involves awareness, reasoning, recollection, and judgment.
Problem solving The cognitive activity of devising a method to proceed from one state to another in the face of real or apparent obstacles
51.3: Selection for individual survival and reproductive success can explain diverse behaviors
Foraging: The seeking and obtaining of food
The fruit fly
optimal foraging model
natural selection should favor a foraging behavior that minimizes the costs of foraging and maximizes the benefits
Balancing risks and rewards
Maximizing energy gain and minimizing energy costs are of little benefit if the behavior makes the forager a likely meal for a predator
Mating Behavior and Mate Choice
These behaviors include seeking or attracting mates, choosing among potential mates, competing for mates, and caring for offspring
Mating Systems and Sexual Dimorphism
Monogamous
one male mating with one female
polygamous
an individual of one sex mating with several of the other
Mating Systems and Parental Care
The needs of the young are an important factor constraining the evolution of mating systems
Certainty of paternity
These behaviors include guarding females, removing any sperm from the female reproductive tract before copulation, and introducing large quantities of sperm that displace the sperm of other males
Sexual Selection and Mate Choice
Sexual dimorphism results from sexual selection, a form of natural selection in which differences in reproductive success among individuals are a consequence of differences in mating success
Applying Game theory
evaluates alternative strategies in situations where the outcome depends on the strategies of all the individuals involved
side-blotched lizard of California
51.4: Genetic analyses and the concept of inclusive fitness provide a basis for studying the evolution of behavior
Genetic Basis of Behavior
the courtship behavior of the male fruit fly
a single gene called fru controls this entire courtship ritual, If the fru gene is mutated to an inactive form, males do not court or mate with females
A peptide neurotransmitter is critical for the partnering and parental behavior of male voles
antidiuretic hormone/vasopressin
Promotes water retention in the kidneys
Genetic Variation and the Evolution of Behavior
Behavioral differences between closely related species are common; while significant differences are not
When behavioral variation between populations of a species correlates with variation in environmental conditions, it may reflect natural selection
western garter snake/ blackcap
Altruism
to describe a behavior that reduces an animal’s individual fitness but increases the fitness of other individuals in the population
Sterile Honeybees
Naked mole rats
Reciprocal Altruism
commonly invoked to explain altruism that occurs between unrelated humans
Rare in other animals
Inclusive fitness
the total effect an individual has on proliferating its genes by producing its own offspring and by providing aid that enables other close relatives to produce offspring
Hamilton’s Rule and Kin Selection
coefficient of relatedness
equals the fraction of genes that, on average, are shared
Hamilton’s rule
Natural selection favors altruism when the benefit to the recipient multiplied by the coefficient of relatedness exceeds the cost to the altruist
kin selection
Natural selection that thus favors altruism by enhancing the reproductive success of relatives
pelagic zone
photic zone
the region where there is sufficient light for photosynthesis