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Ecological Principles and Animal Behavioral Adaptations - Coggle Diagram
Ecological Principles and Animal Behavioral Adaptations
Behavior
Definition: An action carried out by muscles or glands under control of the nervous system in response to a stimulus.
Stimulus
Definition: An environmental cue that triggers a behavior.
Example: Red belly of a male stickleback.
Sign Stimulus
Definition: A specific external stimulus that triggers a fixed action pattern.
Example: Red color triggering aggression in sticklebacks.
Motivations for Behavior
Food Acquisition: Foraging strategies, hunting, tool use.
Reproduction: Courtship displays, mating rituals.
Avoiding Predators: Camouflage, fleeing, alarm calls.
Social Interaction: Communication, cooperation, dominance hierarchies.
Response
Definition: The behavior or action resulting from a stimulus.
Example: Attack behavior in sticklebacks.
Forms of Animal Communication
Visual
Example: Bright plumage in birds.
Auditory
Example: Frog mating calls.
Chemical
Example: Pheromones in insects.
Tactile
Example: Grooming in primates.
Altruism
Definition: Behavior that reduces individual fitness but increases others’ fitness.
Example: Ground squirrel alarm calls.
Reciprocal Altruism
Definition: Helping others with expectation of future help.
Example: Vampire bats sharing blood meals.
Animal Behavior
Imprinting
Definition: Irreversible learning during a sensitive period.
Sensitive Period:A limited developmental phase when imprinting occurs.
Example: Ducklings following mother.
Spatial Learning
Definition: Memory of environmental layout.
Example: Wasps using landmarks to find nests.
Cognition
Definition: Ability to process and apply information.
Example: Chimps using tools.
Social Learning
Definition: Learning by observing others.
Example: Young birds learning songs from adults.
Cross-Fostering Study
Definition: Raising one species by parents of another to study environmental influence.
Example: Mice raised by aggressive vs. passive mothers.
Innate Behavior
Genetically programmed; does not require learning.
Example: Reflexes in newborn mammals
Fixed Action Pattern (FAP)
Sequence of unlearned acts triggered by a specific stimulus; once started, it is carried to completion.
Example: Stickleback fish attacking red objects.
Associative Learning
Linking one stimulus with another.
Example: Pavlov’s dogs associating bell with food.
Operant Conditioning (Trial & Error)
Behavior strengthened or weakened by consequences (reward or punishment).
Example: Animal tricks for treats.
Habituation
Decreased response to a repeated stimulus.
Example: Birds ignoring scarecrows over time.
Observational Learning
Learning by watching others.
Example: Crows learning tool use by observing.
Insight
Problem-solving without trial and error; sudden realization.
Example: Chimpanzees stacking boxes to reach food.
Optimal Foraging Model
Definition: Predicts how animals maximize energy gain while minimizing effort and risk.
Example: Crows choosing nuts that crack easily.
Mating Systems
Promiscuous
Definition: No strong pair bonds.
Monogamous
Definition: One male and one female pair.
Polygamous
Definition: One individual mates with multiple partners.
Sexual Selection
Definition: Natural selection for mating success.
Example: Bright feathers in male birds.
Evolution of Behavior
Behaviors evolve through natural selection:
Adaptive behaviors increase survival and reproduction.
Genetic basis allows behaviors to be inherited.
Examples:
Migration patterns.
Cooperative hunting.
Ecology
Definition: Study of interactions between organisms and environment.
Major Fields:
Organismal → adaptations (behavioral, physiological).
Population → size, density, growth, regulation.
Community → species interactions (competition, predation, symbiosis).
Ecosystem → energy flow, nutrient cycles.
Landscape → spatial patterns, fragmentation.
Global → biosphere processes, climate change.
Earth Systems & Climate
relative to orbital plane → causes seasons.
June Solstice
: Northern Hemisphere tilted toward Sun → longest day.
December Solstice:
Northern Hemisphere tilted away → shortest day.
Equinoxes
Sun directly over equator → equal day/night.
Solar Energy Distribution:
Equator receives direct sunlight year-round → warm, stable climate.
Poles receive oblique sunlight → cold, low energy input.
Air Circulation & Pressure Belts:
Warm air rises at equator → low pressure → heavy rainfall → tropical rainforests.
Cool air sinks at 30° N/S → high pressure → dry conditions → deserts.
Wind Patterns:
Westerlies: Blow west to east in mid-latitudes.
Coriolis Effect: Deflects winds and currents → clockwise in NH, counterclockwise in SH.
Trade Winds: Blow east to west near equator.
Pressure Zones:
Low pressure → precipitation.
High pressure → dry.
Ocean Currents:
Warm currents (e.g., Gulf Stream) → warm coastal climates.
Cold currents (e.g., California Current) → cool coastal climates.
Rain Shadow Effect:
Windward side of mountains → moist air rises, cools, rains → lush vegetation.
Leeward side → dry descending air → desert conditions.
Climate vs Weather
Climate: Long-term average conditions (temperature, precipitation).
Factors Influencing Climate:
Solar radiation intensity.
Global air circulation patterns.
Ocean currents distributing heat.
Topography (mountains, elevation).
Weather: Short-term atmospheric conditions.
Regional Influences:
Mountains create microclimates.
Large bodies of water moderate temperature.
Elevation decreases temperature by ~6°C per 1000 m.
Environmental Factors Affecting Animal Distribution and Dispersal
Abiotic Factors
Temperature: Determines metabolic rates and survival; extreme heat or cold limits species range.
Water Availability: Essential for hydration and reproduction; influences habitat choice.
Sunlight: Affects photosynthesis (indirectly for food chains) and daily activity patterns.
Soil Composition: Nutrient availability impacts plant growth, which affects herbivores and predators.
Salinity: Critical for aquatic species; freshwater vs marine adaptations.
Climate Patterns: Seasonal changes, precipitation, and wind influence migration and breeding cycles.
Biotic Factors
Food Resources: Abundance or scarcity drives movement and habitat selection.
Predators and Competitors: Presence of predators or strong competitors restricts distribution.
Disease and Parasites: Can limit population growth and range.
Physical Barriers
Mountains, oceans, deserts → restrict dispersal and gene flow.
Human Impact
Habitat destruction, pollution, climate change → alter natural distribution patterns.
Terrestrial Biomes
:
Tropical Forest:
Location: Equator.
Climate: Warm, >200 cm rain/year.
Plants: Broadleaf evergreens, epiphytes.
Animals: Primates, birds, insects.
Desert:
Location: 30° N/S.
Climate: <30 cm rain/year, hot days/cold nights.
Plants: Succulents, drought-resistant shrubs.
Animals: Lizards, snakes, rodents.
Savanna
Location: Africa, South America.
Climate: Seasonal rain, warm year-round.
Plants: Grasses, scattered trees.
Animals: Zebras, lions, elephants.
Chaparral:
Location: Mediterranean, California.
Climate: Wet winters, dry summers.
Plants: Shrubs, small trees.
Animals: Deer, rodents, reptiles.
Temperate Grassland:
Location: North America, Eurasia.
Climate: Seasonal, moderate rain.
Plants: Grasses, herbs.
Animals: Bison, prairie dogs.
Northern Coniferous Forest (Taiga):
Location: Canada, Russia.
Climate: Cold winters, mild summers.
Plants: Conifers (pines, spruces).
Animals: Moose, bears, wolves.
Temperate Broadleaf Forest:
Location: Eastern US, Europe.
Climate: Cold winters, warm summers.
Plants: Deciduous trees (oak, maple).
Animals: Deer, squirrels, birds.
Tundra:
Location: Arctic, alpine.
Climate: Very cold, low precipitation.
Plants: Mosses, lichens.
Animals: Caribou, arctic fox.
Aquatic Biomes
Lakes: Standing water, variable O₂, phytoplankton, fish.
Wetlands: Saturated soil, high nutrients, aquatic plants, amphibians.
Streams/Rivers: Flowing water, high O₂, algae, fish.
Estuaries: Fresh-salt mix, variable salinity, seagrasses, crustaceans.
Intertidal Zones: Alternates wet/dry, algae, mollusks.
Ocean Pelagic: Open ocean, high O₂, phytoplankton, whales.
Coral Reefs: Warm shallow, high O₂, corals, fish.
Marine Benthic: Deep ocean floor, low O₂, chemosynthetic bacteria, worms
Key Terms
Permafrost: Permanently frozen soil in tundra.
Evergreen: Plants that retain leaves year-round.
Deciduous: Plants that shed leaves seasonally.
Tropical: Warm, near equator.
Temperate: Moderate climate zones.
Alpine: High mountain biome.
Shrub: Woody plant smaller than a tree.
Littoral: Near shore zone in lakes.
Benthic: Bottom zone of aquatic systems.
Photic: Sunlit zone in water.
Aphotic: Dark zone below photic.
Pelagic: Open water zone.
Thermocline: Layer of rapid temperature change in water.
Turnover: Seasonal mixing of lake water.
Dispersal: Movement of organisms from origin to new areas.
Relationship Between Evolution and the Environment
Natural Selection
Environmental conditions determine which traits are advantageous.
Example: Camouflage in prey species evolves in response to predator pressure.
Adaptation
Traits that improve survival and reproduction become more common over generations.
Example: Desert animals evolve water-conserving physiology.
Environmental Change Drives Evolution
Climate shifts, habitat loss, and resource availability create new selective pressures.
Example: Polar bears evolving thicker fur during ice ages.
Coevolution
Species evolve in response to each other and their environment.
Example: Flowers and pollinators adapting together.
Dispersal and Speciation
Movement into new environments exposes populations to different conditions, leading to divergence and speciation.