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Psychology - Coggle Diagram

- - - - Processes
        
        Reception - Sensory receptors in specific organs detect physical stimuli from the environment
        
        Transduction - Sensory receptors convert physical stimuli into electrochemical signals
        
        Transmission - Neural impulses are sent via specialised neural pathways to specific areas of the brain for processing
    - - Processes
        
        Selection - Brain chooses which information to pay attention to
        
        Organisation - Brain organises sensory input into a meaningful pattern
        
        Interpretation - Brain assigns Maning to organised sensory input.
  - - - Recall (Least sensitive)
        
        Free recall - Retrieving information with no hints or clues
        
        Cued recall - Retrieving information with hints or clues
        
        Serial recall - Retrieving information in a specific order
      - Recognition (Moderate sensitivity)
        
        Previously identified material is identified correctly from among alternatives
      - Relearning (Most sensitive)
        
        Revisiting information previously stored in memory
    - - Shallow processing
        
        Focuses on the physical characteristics of the stimulus or simple characteristics of language used to describe it.
        
        Structural encoding (least effective) - Focuses on physical characteristics of words
        
        Phonemic/Acoustic encoding (more effective than structural) - Focus on what the word sounds like
      - Deep processing
        
        Focused on meaning of stimulus
        
        Semantic encoding (more effective than shallow) - focus on what the word means.
        
        Elaborative encoding (Most effective) - Linking new information to prior knowledge
    - - Maintenance - Repeating information over and over again to keep it in short-term or sensory memory
      - Elaborative - Connecting new information to existing knowledge in order to encode it ifrom short term to long term memory
  - - - Store for incoming sensory info we receive from the environment
      - Echoic memory - auditory, process sounds. Lasts 3-4 seconds
      - Iconic memory - visual, process images and sights. Lasts 0.2-0.5 seconds
      - Capacity - Unlimited
    - - Stores info selected and attended to in sensory register, and info retrieved from long term memory.
      - Capacity 7+-2 items
      - Duration - 18-30 seconds. in textbook i have 12 - 30
    - - Permanent store for information rehearsed and encoded in short term memory
      - Capacity - Unlimited
      - Duration - Forever
    - - Procedural - Doing things involuntarily
      - Emotional - Memories recalled by strong emotional triggers
    - - Semantic - Memory of general, impersonal facts/concepts
      - Episodic - Memory of personally significant events
  - - - The intrusion of similar memories on each other
      - Proactive - Previoulsy stored memories interfere with new info
      - Retroactive - New info interferes with retrieval of old information
    - - Forgetting does not occur at a constant rate, as most forgetting happens early and slows down over time.
  - - - Neurodegenerative disease associated with repetition of head impacts
      - Symptoms may start showing symptoms years after head impacts have occurred
      - Symptoms - mood changes, behavioural changes, trouble with memory and complex thinking
    - - Neurodegenerative disorder associated with cognitive, personality and behavioural changes later in life
      - Neurofibrillary tangels and neuritic plaques in the brain begin most commonly in the hippocampus and gradually spread to more lateral and frontal areas in the cerebral cortex.
      - Symptoms - Memory loss, difficulty with language and problem-solving, confusion, trouble with familiar tasks, and mood and personality changes
    - - Condition similar to dementia and caused by drinking too much alcohol.
      - First stage: Wernicke's encelepathy -Characterized by confusion, eye movement problems, and loss of coordination, and can be reversed with prompt treatment.
      - Second stage: Korsakoff's syndrome - Chronic and long-term condition characterized by severe memory loss,difficulty learning and forming new memories, confusion, apathy, loss of coordination, and a tendency to create false memories to fill memory gaps (confabulation).
- - - - Reduction
      - Refinement
      - Replacement
  - - - Directional and non directional hypothesis (quantitative)
      - Inquiry questions (qualitative)
  - - - Experimental
        
        a method of testing hypotheses by manipulating one or more independent variables to determine their effect on a dependent variable
        
        Strengths - Can establish causal relationships, high internal validity, high reliability
        
        Weaknesses - Low external validity, difficulty controlling all variables
      - Observational
        
        systematically observing and collecting data on subjects without manipulating variables, aiming to describe and understand phenomena as they naturally occur
        
        Strengths - High external validity, cost-effective, greater sample sizes
        
        Weaknesses - Susceptible to bias, difficulty establishing causal relationships, low internal validity
    - - Sample - Subset of population used to represnent whole group
      - Population - Complete set of individuals that share a common characteristic
      - Methods of Sampling
        
        Convenience - Participants selected based on easy accessibility and proximity to researcher
        
        Snowball - Initial participants recruit other participants from among their acquiantances
        
        Random - Each member of a population has an equal chance of selection
        
        Stratified - Population is divided into subgroups and sample is chosen from subgroups - subgroups and participants gained must be an equal proportion to the total population
    - - Independent - Variable that is manipulated to see its effect on dependent variable
      - Dependent - Variable that is measured to see how it is affected by the independent variable
      - Controlled - Factor that is kept the same to ensure the effect of dependent variable is only from independent variable
      - Extraneous - Variable that is not independent variable but has potential to influence dependent variable. Can come from participant, environment or researcher
        
        Experimenter effect - A bias that can occur when an experimenter's expectations, characteristics, or actions unintentionally influence the results of a study
      - Confounding - Variable that influences both independent and dependent variables
        
        Demand characteristics - A bias that can occur when an experimenter's expectations, characteristics, or actions unintentionally influence the results of a study
      - Minimise effects of extraneous and confounding variables
        
        Random allocation of participants
        
        Single-blind procedures - Participants unaware of group assignment but researchers are
        
        Standardisation of procedures and instructions
  - - - Qualitative - Descriptive, non-numerical information that captures qualities, characteristics, and concepts, rather than numbers and statistics
      - Quantitative - Information that can be measured, counted, and expressed in numerical values
    - - Qualitative
        
        Interviews
        
        Structured interviews - Follow a strict script with predetermined questions in a set order, making them highly reliable but less flexible.
        
        Semi-structured interviews - Use a thematic framework and a list of questions but allow for flexibility to ask follow-up questions and explore emerging topics
        
        Focus groups - Involve a group discussion guided by a facilitator, rather than a traditional interviewer-interviewee format
        
        Strengths - Provides in-depth, rich insights into complex issues by capturing nuanced human experiences, motivations, and opinions
        
        Weaknesses - The potential for researcher bias, difficulty in generalising findings due to small sample sizes, time-consuming and complex data analysis, and the challenges of ensuring reliability and replicability
        
        Open ended survey - uses questions that do not have a predetermined answer choice, prompting respondents to answer in their own words
      - Quantitative
        
        Objective physiological measures
        
        Heart rate
        
        Breathing rate
        
        Galvanic skin response
        
        Subjective measures
        
        Checklists
        
        Rating scales
        
        Likhert scale
        
        Strengths - Objectivity, reliability through statistical analysis, and the ability to generalise findings from a large sample to a broader population
        
        Weaknesses - Lack of depth and context, which can oversimplify complex issues by failing to capture subjective experiences, emotions, and the "why" behind the numbers
      - Mixed methods
        
        Data collection is a combination of qualitative and quantitative data
        
        Strengths - Strengthens research by combining the quantitative breadth of numerical data with the qualitative depth of narratives, providing a more complete understanding of a problem
        
        Weaknesses - Increased time and cost, the complexity of integrating and interpreting potentially conflicting results, and the need for a diverse and skilled research team
    - - Subjective - Information based on an individual's personal feelings, perceptions, and experiences, making it unmeasurable and unique to that person
      - Objective - Factual, measurable information that is observable and not influenced by personal feelings or opinions
    - - PSQI
      - Pre sleep arousal scale
      - Sleep diary
      - PANAS
      - n-back task
      - Sociodemohraphic variables
- - - - Reinforcement - Increases likelihood of behaviour occurring again
        
        Positive - Addition of desirable stimulus after correct behaviour shown
        
        Negative - Removal of undesirable stimulus after correct behaviour shown
      - Punishment - Decrease likelihood of behaviour occurring again
        
        Positive - Adding undesirable stimulus after incorrect behaviour shown
        
        Negative - Removal of desireable stimulus after incorrect behaviour shown.
  - - - Learner more likely to watch models who are attractive, high status, similar attributes and same sex.
    - - The stranger the mental picture, the more likely it will be reproduced
    - - Can only be reproduced if learner has necessary skill
    - - Learners cognitive evaluation of punishments and reinforcements received determines whether they have the desire to replicate behaviour.
      - Motivatio can be intrinsic or extrinsic
    - - Self - internal factors such as how u feel or perceive yourself reinforce a behaviour
      - External - Other people or factors outside self reinforce a behaviour
      - Vicarious - learner is influenced by seeing someone else be reinforced by a behaviour
  - - - Relaxation training - Individual learns deep muscle laxation techniques and breathing exercises to control anxiety and physical reactions to stress
      - Establishment of Anxiety Hierarchy - Individual and therapist create a list of fear-inducing situations specific to phobia ranking from least to most fear provoking
      - Gradual Exposure - Individual is taken through situations made in hierarchy, starting sat the bottom and working up. They can only move up a level once they have shown they can stay relaxed in the current one
- - - - Environmental - Comes from surroundings from internal or external factors.
      - Psychological - Emotional and cognitive challenges such as exams, deadlines or relationship worries
      - Social - Interactions with others like conflicts with friends.
      - Cultural - These are stressors related to the norms and expectations of your culture or society.
    - - Nature - Environmental, psychological, social or cultural - no longer true! the knight lady said it is about predictability
      - Duration - Short term (acute), or long term (chronic.
      - Strength - Severity or intensity can range from mild to severely distressing
    - - Stress is a set of processes that act as a response
      - Alarm Stage
        
        Threat is detected by amygdala in the brain and sends signal to hypothalamus
        
        This initiates SNS and a signal is sent to the adrenal glands via bloodstream, which releases cortisol, adrenaline and noradrenaline
        
        Fight or flight response
        
        Occurs 6-48 hours after initial stressor is detected
      - Resistance Stage
        
        Body tries to repair from initial shock by redoing the activity of SNS and initiating PNS which reverses bodily functioning produced by SNS
        
        Adrenaline, noradrenaline and cortisol continue to be secreted
        
        If stress continues and is not resolved, the 3rd stage is reached
      - Exhaustion stage
        
        If there is a prolonged period of stress, body's physical and mental resources are depleted limiting effects of adrenal glands, causing a drop in blood sugar levels, negatively impacting health
        
        Immediate effects includes fatigue, reduced motivation and can increase risk of developing depression or anxiety
      - Dumb can't make bigger
    - - Stress is a significant change in life that requires a response or adjustment to be made.
      - Social Readjustment Scale
        
        Asseses amount of stress that experienced in the past year by an individual
        
        List of 43 common life events
        
        A score of 10-100 Life Change Units (LCU) are allocated to each events and added up
        
        Scores estimated estimate level of response and adjustment required by individual experiencing them
        
        Life events range from minimally stressful to extremely and the likelihood of developing a physical or mental, stress-related illness can be calculated
    - - Individuals utilise their perception of a stress situation and past experiences to help cope
      - Stress is not an event but a consequence of the dynamic process where primary and secondary appraisals work to assess the significance of a situation and evaluate ways to deal with it
    - - Primary Appraisal - An initial assessment of the situation is a potential threat, challenge or may cause harm (irrelavant, benign, harmful)
      - Secondary Appraisal - Available resources and coping options are evaluated to see what can be used to manage the situation
      - Reappraisal - An emotion regulation strategy that involves changing how you think about a situation to alter your emotional response to it
    - - Emotion - Focused Coping
        
        Goal is to manage emotional reactions to stress
        
        Used if they perceive they do not have resources to effectively respond to, or cope with stress
      - Problem - Focused Coping
        
        Addressing the root cause
        
        Utilised by individuals who believe they have the resources to deal with stress
    - - Maladaptive
        
        Harmful and unhealthy stress management that exacerbates its adverse effects
        
        Avoid dealing with the stressors that are causing problems
      - Adaptive
        
        Beneficial and productive methods, decrease adverse impacts of stress
        
        Face stress allowing them to be dealt with
  - - - Evolutionary
        
        Early humans used daytime to eartdrink and reproduce, as there was more risk of injury in the dark and avoid predators
        
        Sleeping allows declined energy levels to be restored
      - Restorative
        
        Homeostasis is disrupted when we are awake
        
        Sleeping allows energy levels that have declined to be restored
    - - Recurring pattern of sleep and wakefulness that individuals undergo on a daily basis
      - NREM 1
        
        Lasts 5-10 minutes
        
        Transitional peuid between wakefulness and sleep
        
        Decreased heart rate
        
        Slow rolling eye movement
        
        Muscle tension -Muscles relax, high chin muscle tone, hyping jerk or sleep start
        
        Hypnic jerks and hypnagogic imagery
      - NREM 2
        
        Lasts 10-25 minutes
        
        Light non-REM sleep, true sleep
        
        Heart rate starts to slow
        
        Eye movement stops
        
        Muslces continue to relax with occasional muscle twitches
      - NREM 3
        
        30-40 minutes
        
        Deep non-REM sleep
        
        Heart rate continues to decrease
        
        Minimal eye movement
        
        Muscles at most relaxed and in recovery and growth
      - REM
        
        20-30 minutes
        
        Dreams start to occur
        
        Heart rate increases to match rate when awake
        
        Raid eye movement
        
        Muscles temporarily paralysed, except for those involved in breathing and the eye (muscle atone)
      - one cycle is 90 minutes, supposedly increases eventually to 120. ULTRADIAN RHYTHM
    - - Condition of not getting suffificient sleep
      - Sleep insufficiency - Physically able to sleep enough, but schedule does not allow or give opportunity
      - Insomnia - Ample opportunity to sleep but struggles to fall asleep, stay asleep or both
      - Causes
        
        Shift work
        
        Hormones like melatonin help regulate sleep-wake cycle so they are awake during day and tired at night
        
        Involves altering sleep-wake cycle and reduces quality and amount of sleep
        
        May have trouble sleeping during the day because exposure to light at night and the dark during the day affects circadian rhythm
        
        Drugs
        
        Impact stage progression, reduce amount of NREM or affect REM sleep
        
        Caffeien incresaess acitivity of CNS
        
        Alcohol is a depresant that an disrupt sleep when it wears off
        
        Sleep environment
        
        Being in brightly lit environments at night time may reduce levels of melatonin, thus sleep-wake cycle
        
        Environment, either inside th home or outside the home ca cause people to wake up and decrease the intensity of sleep
        
        Stressors
        
        Make it more difficult to sleep, and stay asleep due to feeling of anxiety
        
        May impact sleep routines and result in less sleep overall
      - Symptoms
        
        Reduced alertness and slow reaction times
        
        Trouble paying attention
        
        Reduced cognitive ability and impaired logical reasoning
        
        Mood changes, including irritability
        
        Anxiety, depression, reduced sex drive
      - Partial sleep deprivation
        
        Severe reduction or complete lack of sleep over a short period of time
        
        Causes
        
        Staying up late to complete work
        
        Pulling an all-nighter
        
        Jet lag and stress
        
        Can be reversed with adequate sleep
        
        Effects
        
        Attention -Lapses in attention increase when sleep deprived
        
        Mood - Decreases mood and cause irritability in people
        
        Reflex speed - Reaction time to stimulus increases and take longer to react
        
        Vision - Blurry, sensitive to light
      - Chronic sleep deprivation
        
        Persistant reduction of sleep over a long period
        
        Can be caused by insomnia, sleep disturbances or extensive periods of insufficient sleep
        
        Detrimental effects are hard to reverse
        
        Effects
        
        Heart disease - Increased blood pressure and cholesterol levels
        
        Obesity - Increase intake of high energy foods
        
        Anxiety and insomnia
- - - - Cognitive - Based on mental processes like thoughts, emotions and goals
      - Emotional - Driven by feelings of joy, fear or anger.
      - Social - Motivated by interactions with others
      - Physiological - Based on bodily needs.
    - - Intrinsic Motivation - Internalise drive propelling you to enact a behaviour
      - Extrinsic Motivation - Drive of behaviour based on external rewards
      - Amotivation - The lack of drive to enact a behaviour
      - Psychological needs for Motivation
        
        Autonomy - Behaviours internally driven or controlled
        
        Competence - Behaviours inform individuals of abilities/avoid detrimental evaluation.
        
        Relatedness - Security and support, although not requiring the presence of others
    - - Hierarchy
        
        Self Actualisation (Growth)
        
        Trancedence
        
        Self Actualisation
        
        Aesthetic
        
        Cognitive
        
        Esteem (Deficiency)
        
        Love and Belonging (Deficiency)
        
        Safety and Security (Deficiency
        
        Physiological Needs (Deficiency)
      - Deficiency Needs
        
        Motivated by absence or deficit
        
        When fulfilled, motivation diminishes
        
        Are prepotent (must be fulfilled first)
      - Growth Needs
        
        Motivated by personal development and intrinsic interest
        
        Never fully satisfied
        
        More they are satisfied, the stronger they become
        
        Fulfillment contributes to psychological health, meaning and peak experiences
      - Characteristics of the Self-Actualised
        
        Reality centered
        
        Problem centered
        
        Autonomy
        
        Continued appreciation
        
        Peak experiences
        
        Deep interpersonal relationships
        
        Democratic values
        
        Discrimination between means and ends
        
        Creativity
        
        Acceptance of self and others
  - - - An individuals own evaluations of their life, encompassing both cognitive judgements and emotional experiences
      - Life satisfaction - Cognitive component, representing a persons global evaluation of their life
      - Affective balance - Emotional component, balance between positive and negative emotions. known as the amount of each different positive or negative emotion experienced. the balance between these 2 effects how an individual addresses their life satisfaction
    - - Autonomy
        
        different to other forms of automy, where this one is known as the drive to complete a task from within, not from others. similar to intrinsic motivation.
      - Self acceptance
      - Environmental mastery
      - Positive relations of others
      - Purpose in life
      - Personal growth