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Animal Physiology Part 3 - Coggle Diagram

- - - - An organism must take in water and ions when it’s losing too much and get rid of excess water or ions when it has too much
      - If water and solutes are imbalanced, cells with too much water will swell and burst, and cells with too little water will dehydrate and shrink
      - Balanced is maintained by the kidneys and hormones
  - - - Aquatic animals (like fish) can afford to lose water, so they excrete ammonia
      - Terrestrial mammals and amphibians (like humans and frogs) have moderate water availability, so they excrete concentrated urea
      - Birds and reptiles need to conserve as much water as possible, so they excrete very concentrated uric acid
    - - Mammals (and their amphibian ancestors) evolved urea excretion to conserve water and reduce toxicity.
      - Reptiles and birds (who share a common ancestor) evolved uric acid excretion to adapt to terrestrial and dry habitats.
  - - - Flatworms :arrow_right: Protonephridia
        Earthworms :arrow_right: Metanephridia
        Insects :arrow_right: Malpighian tubules
        Vertebrates :arrow_right: nephrons
        
        All these tubular systems perform the same basic steps:
        
        Filtration, reabsorption, secretion, and excretion.
  - - - The Glomerulus & Bowman’s capsule are used for filtration
      - The Proximal tubule is used for reabsorption & secretion
      - The Loop of Henle is used for water and salt balance
      - The Distal tubule is used for selective reabsorption & secretion
      - The Collecting duct is used for the final concentration of urine
- - - - When the hormone binds to its receptor, it activates a signal pathway inside the target cell that produces a specific response
      - Water-soluble hormones cannot enter cells; instead they bind to surface receptors, causing fast, short-term responses
        
        Lipid-soluble hormones diffuse through the cell membrane and bind to internal receptors, causing slower, long-term responses.
  - - - The hypothalamus receives information from the nervous system about the body and environment and sends out releasing or inhibiting hormones that control the pituitary gland
      - The pituitary glad releases hormones that regulate other glands
      - The nervous system works together with the endocrine system during stress response.
        
        Nervous system detects danger and activates the adrenal medulla
        
        The adrenal medulla releases epinephrine and norepinephrine
        
        The hypothalamus and pituitary trigger cortisol release
        
        The feedback from cortisol eventually reduces further hormone release, maintaining homeostasis
    - - Negative feedback: The hormone’s effects reduce further hormone release, keeping things balanced
        
        Positive feedback: The hormone’s effects stimulate more hormone release
  - - - Hormonal stimuli stimulates pituitary gland to release other hormones
        
        Nerve signals trigger the adrenal medulla to release epinephrine (“fight or flight”)
        
        Chemical changes in blood causes the parathyroid gland releases PTH to raise calcium ion levels
    - - Development:
        Thyroid hormones regulate metabolism and development
        Sex hormones control puberty and reproduction
        Growth hormone stimulates tissue growth
        
        Behavior:
        Sex hormones affect mating and parental behaviors
        Oxytocin affects bonding and social behavior
        Epinephrine controls fear or excitement
  - - - Made of amino acids or peptides, they cannot cross the cell membrane and must bind to receptors on the cell surface
    - - Derived from cholesterol and can cross the cell membrane easily to bind to receptors inside the cytoplasm or nucleus
  - - - Controls pituitary gland; links nervous and endocrine systems
    - - Controls metabolism, growth, and calcium balance
    - - Raises blood calcium levels
    - - Regulates growth, thyroid, adrenal glands, reproduction, and water balance
    - - Regulates blood glucose levels
    - - Stress response, metabolism, blood pressure, water and salt balance
    - - Regulates sleep–wake cycles
    - - Control sexual development and reproduction
    - - Stimulates T-cell development (immune function)