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Chapter 9 and 10 - Coggle Diagram

- - - - Aerobic respiration consumes organic molecules and oxygen and yields ATP
        
        Anaerobic respiration is similar to aerobic respiration but consumes compounds other than oxygen
        
        Cellular respiration includes both aerobic and anaerobic respiration but is often used to refer to aerobic respiration
        
        C6H12O6 + 6 O2 → 6 CO2 + 6 H2O + Energy (ATP + heat)
- - - - Chemical reactions that transfer electrons between reactants are called oxidation-reduction reactions, or redox reactions
        
        In redox reactions, the loss of electrons from a substance is called oxidation
        
        The addition of electrons to a substance is called reduction (the amount of positive charge is reduced)
        
        The electron donor is called the reducing agent, it reduces the electron acceptor
        
        The electron acceptor is called the oxidizing agent, it oxidizes the electron donor
        
        An electron loses potential energy when it shifts from a less electronegative atom toward a more electronegative one
        
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- - - - Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide, NAD+, is a coenzyme that functions as an electron carrier
        
        As an electron acceptor, NAD+ functions as an oxidizing agent during cellular respiration
        
        Each NADH (the reduced form of NAD+) represents stored energy that is tapped to synthesize ATP
        
        Enzymes called dehydrogenases remove a pair of hydrogen atoms (2 electrons and 2 protons) from the substrate
        
        The 2 electrons and 1 proton is transferred to NAD+ forming NADH
        
        An electron transport chain consists of a series of molecules built into the inner membrane of the mitochondria (or plasma membrane of prokaryotes)
        
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- - - - During oxidative phosphorylation the electron transfer chain and chemiosmosis facilitate synthesis of most of the cell’s ATP
        
        The process that generates almost 90% of the ATP is called oxidative phosphorylation because it is powered by redox reactions
        
        Some ATP is also formed in glycolysis and the citric acid cycle by substrate-level phosphorylation
        
        Substrate-level phosphorylation occurs when an enzyme transfers a phosphate group directly from a substrate to ADP
- - - - A net of 2 ATP are produced by substrate-level phosphorylation during glycolysis
        
        Glycolysis does not release any CO2, and occurs whether or not O2 is present
        
        Most of the energy in glucose remains stored in the pyruvate molecules produced by glycolysis
        
        Pyruvate is converted to acetyl coenzyme A (acetyl CoA) before entering the citric acid cycle
- - - - First the acetyl group of acetyl CoA joins the cycle by combining with oxaloacetate, forming citrate
        
        The next seven steps decompose the citrate back to oxaloacetate, making the process a cycle
        
        The NADH and FADH2 produced by the cycle carry electrons to the electron transport chain
        
        Molecules of NADH and FADH2 produced during glycolysis and the citric acid cycle account for most of the energy extracted from glucose
        
        NADH and FADH2 donate electrons to the electron transport chain, which powers ATP synthesis via oxidative phosphorylation
- - - - In prokaryotes, the electron transport chain is embedded in the plasma membrane
        
        Electrons are passed through a number of carrier molecules including several cytochromes (proteins with heme groups containing an iron atom)
- - - - This is an example of chemiosmosis, the use of energy in a H+ gradient to drive cellular work
        
        The H+ gradient is referred to as a proton-motive force, emphasizing its capacity to do work
- - - - In lactic acid fermentation, pyruvate is reduced directly by NADH to form lactate and NAD+
        
        There is no release of CO2 in lactic acid fermentation
        
        A complex series of fermentation and aerobic respiration carried out by yeasts and bacteria on cacao beans is responsible for chocolate production
- - - - Almost all plants are photoautotrophs, that is, they use the energy of sunlight to make organic molecules
        
        Photosynthesis also occurs in algae, certain other protists, and some prokaryotes
        
        Heterotrophs obtain organic material from other organisms; they are the consumers of the biosphere
- - - - CO2 enters and O2 exits the leaf through microscopic pores called stomata
        
        Veins transport water from the roots and export sugar to nonphotosynthetic parts of the plant
        
        A chloroplast has an envelope of two membranes surrounding a dense fluid called the stroma
        
        Thylakoids are connected sacs in the chloroplast that compose a third membrane system
        
        Chlorophyll, the pigment that gives leaves their green color, resides in the thylakoid membranes
- - - - Chloroplasts use light energy to make sugar by coordinating the two stages of photosynthesis
        
        The light reactions occur in the thylakoids and release NADPH and ATP to the stroma for use in the Calvin cycle
        
        Their thylakoids transform light energy into the chemical energy of ATP and NADPH
- - - - Wavelengths that are not absorbed are reflected or transmitted
        
        For example, most leaves appear green because chlorophyll absorbs violet-blue and red light while reflecting and transmitting green light
        
        A spectrophotometer measures a pigment’s ability to absorb various wavelengths
        
        Chlorophyll a, the key light-capturing pigment that participates directly in light reactions
        
        Chlorophyll b, an accessory pigment
        
        The action spectrum for photosynthesis, a profile of the relative effectiveness of different
        
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- - - - Electrons are passed in a series of redox reactions from the primary electron acceptor of PS II down an electron transport chain to PS I
        
        Energy released by electron transfer is used to pump H+ into the thylakoid space, creating a proton gradient across the thylakoid membrane
- - - - Cyclic electron flow uses only photosystem I
        •It produces ATP, but no NADPH or oxygen results from this process
- - - - Both ATP and NADPH are produced on the stroma side of the thylakoid membrane, making them available for sugar synthesis in the Calvin cycle
- - - - The Calvin cycle has three phases: carbon fixation, reduction, and regeneration of the CO2 acceptor
        
        Carbon fixation: The binding of CO2 to a five-carbon sugar named ribulose bisphosphate (RuBP) is catalyzed by RuBP carboxylase-oxygenase, or rubisco
        
        Reduction: Each molecule of 3-phosphoglycerate is altered through phosphorylation by six ATP and reduction by six NADPH to ultimately produce a G3P sugar
        
        Regeneration of the CO2 acceptor (RuBP): The remaining five molecules of G3P are rearranged in a complex series of reactions yielding three molecules of RuBP