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Osmoregulation, Excretion & Endocrine Control - Coggle Diagram

- - - - match environment’s osmolarity (most marine invertebrates)
    - - maintain internal osmolarity (freshwater fish, mammals)
  - - - risk of dehydration
      - Drink seawater
        
        excrete excess salt via gills
    - - risk of water gain
      - Actively uptake ions through gills
      - Excrete large volumes of dilute urine
    - - prevent water loss
      - Adaptations
        
        waxy exoskeletons, nocturnal lifestyle, concentrated urine
      - Example: kangaroo rat conserves water via metabolism
  - - - efficient ion removal
    - - Example: salt glands in seabirds
- - - - metanephridia (open tubes)
    - - Malpighian tubules (dry waste)
    - - protonephridia (flame bulbs)
    - - kidneys (nephrons filter blood)
  - - - distal tubule (toxins, excess ions)
    - - collecting duct to ureter to bladder to urethra
    - - proximal tubule (nutrients, ions, water)
    - - glomerulus
        
        Bowman's capsule
  - - - mammals, less toxic, energy costly
    - - reptiles, birds, least toxic, conserves water
    - - aquatic animals, very toxic, water required
- - - - low blood pressure/volume
    - - activates angiotensin II
    - - raises BP
    - - Na⁺ reabsorption
        
        water follows
  - - - high blood pressure/stretch in atria
  - - - more water reabsorbed
- - - - Receptors on cell surface
      - Signal transduction via second messengers (cAMP)
      - Example: epinephrine
        
        “fight or flight”
    - - Receptors inside cell
        
        alter gene expression
      - Example: estrogen, testosterone
  - - - secrete hormones into bloodstream
    - - Paracrine
        
        local signaling
      - Autocrine
        
        same cell
      - Endocrine
        
        hormones travel through blood
    - - mostly negative feedback
  - - - controls pituitary
    - - Anterior
        
        growth hormone, prolactin, TSH, ACTH, FSH, LH
      - Posterior
        
        ADH, oxytocin
    - - metabolism (thyroxine)
    - - stress response (cortisol, epinephrine)
    - - insulin & glucagon (blood glucose regulation)
    - - sex hormones (testosterone, estrogen, progesterone)