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Chapter 9-10 - Coggle Diagram

- - - - Chloroplasts split H2O into hydrogen and oxygen,
        incorporating the electrons of hydrogen into sugar
        molecules and releasing O2 as a by-product
  - - - Split H2O, providing electrons and protons (H+)
      - Release O2 as a by-product
      - Release O2 as a by-product
      - Generate ATP from ADP by photophosphorylation
    - - It then reduces fixed carbon to carbohydrate by
        transferring electrons from NADPH
      - carbon fixation - where the Calvin cycle begins incorporating CO2 into organic molecules
  - - - Pigments are substances that absorb visible light
      - Different pigments absorb different wavelengths,
        and the wavelengths that are absorbed disappear
      - Wavelengths that are not absorbed are reflected or
        transmitted
      - spectrophotometer measures a pigment’s
        ability to absorb various wavelengths
      - absorption spectrum is a graph plotting a
        pigment’s light absorption versus wavelength
    - - Chlorophyll a, the key light-capturing pigment that
        participates directly in light reactions
      - Chlorophyll b, an accessory pigment
      - Carotenoids, a separate group of accessory
        pigments
      - carotenoids yellow or orange because they absorb violet and
        blue-green light
    - - .
        
        Wavelength is a measure of the distance between
        crests of electromagnetic waves
        
        It can range from less than a nanometer (gamma
        rays) to more than a kilometer (radio waves)
        
        Light is electromagnetic energy, also called
        electromagnetic radiation
        
        electromagnetic spectrum is the entire range
        of electromagnetic energy, or radiation
        
        Visible light (wavelengths 380 nm to 740 nm)
        drives photosynthesis and produces the colors
        seen by the human eye
        
        photons - light behaves as though it consists of discrete
        particles
    - - reaction-center complex is an association of
        proteins holding a special pair of chlorophyll a
        molecules and a primary electron acceptor
      - light-harvesting complex consists of various
        pigment molecules bound to proteins
      - photosystem consists of a reaction-center
        complex surrounded by light-harvesting complexes
- - - - During cellular respiration, fuel molecules (such as
        glucose) are oxidized, and O2 is reduced
- - - - three reactions
      - Oxidation of pyruvate’s carboxyl group, releasing
        the first CO2 of cellular respiration
      - Reduction of NAD+ to NADH
      - Combination of the remaining two-carbon fragment
        with coenzyme A to form acetyl CoA
  - - - the acetyl group of acetyl CoA joins the cycle
        by combining with oxaloacetate forming citrate
      - next seven steps decompose the citrate back
        to oxaloacetate, making the process a cycle
      - NADH and FADH2 produced by the cycle carry
        electrons to the electron transport chain
  - - - During cellular respiration, most energy flows in this
        sequence:
      - glucose → NADH → electron transport chain →
        proton-motive force → ATP
      - About 34% of the energy in a glucose molecule is
        transferred to ATP, making about 32 ATP
  - - - alcohol fermentation - pyruvate is converted to
        ethanol in two steps
      - Fermentation is an extension of glycolysis that
        oxidizes NADH by transferring electrons to
        pyruvate or its derivatives
      - The first step releases CO2 from pyruvate
        
        The second step produces NAD+ and ethanol
      - lactic acid fermentation - pyruvate is reduced
        directly by NADH to form lactate and NAD+
      - There is no release of CO2 in lactic acid
        fermentation
- - - - Phase 2: Reduction - molecule of 3-phosphoglycerate is altered
        through phosphorylation by six ATP and reduction
        by six NADPH to ultimately produce a G3P sugar
      - Phase 3: Regeneration of the CO2 acceptor
        (RuBP) - The remaining five molecules of G3P are
        rearranged in a complex series of reactions yielding
        three molecules of RuBP
      - Phase 1: Carbon fixation -The binding of CO2 to a five-carbon sugar named
        ribulose bisphosphate (RuBP is catalyzed by
        RuBP carboxylase-oxygenase, or rubisco
  - - - CAM plants open their stomata at night, and
        incorporate CO2 into organic acids that are stored
        in the vacuoles
      - The C4 pathway structurally separates the initial
        steps of carbon fixation from the Calvin cycle