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Regulation of the Body, all over, Local - Coggle Diagram

- - - - autocrine
        
        targets are secreting cells
      - synaptic
        
        cognition, movement, memory, sensation; target tissues
        
        neurotransmitters
      - paracrine
        
        targets lie near secreting cell
      - neuroendicrine
        
        neurons secrete neurohormones into the bloodstream, target cells are anywhere in the body
        
        ADH
      - endocrine
        
        hormones in extracellular fluid are reached by targeted cells via the bloodstream anywhere in the body
      - exocrine
        
        secreted outside the body released into the environment
        
        pheromones
    - - amines
        
        epinephrine
        
        water soluble
        
        secreted via exocytosis
        
        bind to receptors
        
        inducing changes in cytoplasmic molecules and sometimes altering gene transcription
        
        thyroxine
      - steroids
        
        cortisol
        
        lipid soluble
        
        diffuse
        
        bind to transport proteins
        
        act within the nucleus or cytoplasm
      - polypeptides
        
        insulin
    - - Water soluble hormones
        
        binding to cell receptor triggers cell response
        
        response may be the activation of an enzyme, a change in the uptake or secretion of specific molecules, or a rearrangement of the cytoskeleton
        
        signal transduction
      - lipid soluble hormones
        
        change in gene expression.
        
        intracellular
    - - thyroid gland
        
        T3 and T4
        
        calcitonin
      - parathyroid gland
        
        PTH
      - adrenal glands
        
        a. medulla
        
        epinephrine, norepinephrine
        
        a. cortex
        
        glucocorticoids
        
        mineralcorticoids
      - ovaries
        
        estrogen
      - testes
        
        androgens
      - pineal gland
        
        Melatonin
      - pituitary gland
        
        posterior
        
        oxytocin
        
        vasopressin
        
        anterior hormones
        
        Melanocytes stimulating
        
        follicle stimulating
        
        Prolactin
        
        growth hormone
        
        thyroid stimulating
        
        adrenocorticotropic
      - hypothalamus
        
        synthesizes hormones released via the post pituitary
      - pancreas
        
        insulin
  - - - endocrine cells respond directly to an internal or environmental stimulus by secreting a particular hormone
    - - stimulus is received by a sensory neuron rather than endocrine tissue
        
        nursing
    - - negative
        
        response reduces the initial stimulus
      - positive
        
        reinforces a stimulus
    - - invertebrate
        
        Neurosecretory cells in the brain produce PTTH, a polypeptide neurohormone
        
        PTTH reaches the prothoracic gland
        
        release ecdysteroid which trigger each successive molt
        
        JH modulates ecdysteroid activity
        
        high: molting
        
        low: metamorphasis
      - vertebrates
        
        hypothalamus receives information
        
        Signals from the hypothalamus travel to the pituitary gland
        
        The posterior pituitary is an extension of the neural tissue of the hypothalamus
        
        Neurohormones are stored, released in response to nerve impulses transmitted by the hypothalamus
        
        anterior pituitary synthesizes and secretes hormones in response to hormones from the hypothalamus
        
        Hormones secreted by the hypothalamus control the release of all anterior pituitary hormones; releasing or inhibiting
        
        tropic hormones
    - - Disorders
        
        goiters
      - 1: TH level drops below set point
        
        2: Neuroendocrine cells increase secretion of TRH in the blood to the anterior pit gland
        
        3: TRH cause anterior pit to secrete TSH into circ system
        
        4: TSH stims endocrine cells to secrete T3 and T4 into circ sys
        
        5: TH increases in blood and body, increases heat production, maintain blood pressure, digestive function, reproduction
        
        6: TH returns to reg limits and inhibiting TRH release from the hypothalamus and TSH from ant. pit.
    - - secreted by the anterior pituitary, stimulates growth through both tropic and nontropic effects
        
        liver releases insulin-like growth factors that stimulate bone and cartilage growth
        
        absence of GH, the skeleton of an immature animal stops growing
  - - - PTH from the parathyroid raises calcium level through various means
      - calcitonin, a hormone that inhibits bone breakdown and enhances calcium excretion by the kidneys
    - - mediates an endocrine response to stress
      - adrenal medulla
        
        adrenaline and noradrenaline
        
        adrenaline affects liver, airway, and smooth muscles
        
        “fight-or-flight” response
      - adrenal cortex
        
        Glucocorticoids
        
        promotes synthesis of glucose upon the breakdown of muscle proteins provides circulating fuel when the body requires it immediately than what is stored
        
        Mineralocorticoids
        
        ACTH
    - - influence growth, development, reproductive cycles, and sexual behavior
      - endocrine disruptors interrupt normal pathways
        
        diethylstilbestrol
        
        alter reproductive system development in the fetus
    - - melatonin promotes sleep, longer nights increase hormone production
    - - Prolactin stimulates mammary gland growth and milk synthesis in mammals, regulates fat metabolism and reproduction in birds, delays metamorphosis in amphibians, and regulates salt and water balance in freshwater fishes
      - In amphibians, fishes, and reptiles, MSH regulates skin color by controlling pigment distribution in skin cells called melanocytes. In mammals, MSH functions in hunger and metabolism in addition to skin coloration
- - - - isoosmotic
        
        solutions with the same concentration
      - hyperosmotic
        
        highly concentrated solution
      - hypoostmotic
        
        diluted solution
    - - osmoconformer: to be isoosmotic with its surroundings
        
        ex: marine animals
        
        euryhaline
        
        can handle large fluctuation in osmolarity
        
        Ex: barnacles, mussels in esturaries
        
        Saltwater fish: gain water and ions from food and drinking seawater excrete salt ions and water from kidneys, salt ions from gills osmotic water loss through gills and body surface
      - osmoregulator: to control internal osmolarity independent of that of the external environment
        
        stenohaline
        
        cannot handle large fluctuations in osmolarity
        
        ex: striped bass, salmon
        
        Freshwater fish: gain water and some ions from food, excretion of salt and water from kidneys, uptake of salt ions from gills, osmotic water gain through gills and body surface
        
        Terrestrial animals
        
        maintain water balance by drinking and eating moist foods and by producing water metabolically through cellular respiration
    - - A dormant state involving loss of almost all body water.
    - - one or more layers of epithelial cells specialized for moving particular solutes in controlled amounts in specific directions
      - nasal salt glands in marine birds
  - - - ammonia
        
        most aquatic animals, most bony fishes
        
        toxic,highly soluble
        
        must be transpoted through very dilute solutions
      - uric acid
        
        birds, reptiles, land snails
        
        insoluble, nontoxic, requires a lot of ATP
      - urea
        
        mammals, sharks, amphibians, some bony fishes
        
        created by combining ammonia with carbon dioxide in the liver
    - - availability of water in environment
        
        wet areas: ammonia is readily excreted
        dry areas: excretions of uric acid
      - reproduction in environment
        
        hard shell: harmless solid, uric acid, in a nonpermeable (to liquids) shell
        
        fluid shell: a permeable membrane allows ammonia or urea to excrete passively
        
        in utero: wastes are carried away via blood
      - diet
        
        Predators have a high-protein diet and excrete more nitrogen than an animal living on lipids and carbs
      - metabolic energy budget
        
        endotherms: eat more food and produce more nitrogenous waste due to high energy costs
  - - - Filtration
        
        :arrow_right:
        
        reabsorption
        
        :arrow_right:
        
        secretion
        
        :arrow_right:
        
        1 more item...
        
        active transport of solute back into filtrate
        
        blood recovers useful molecules
        
        Valuable solutes—including glucose, certain salts, vitamins, hormones, and amino acids
        
        water and small solutes, such as salts, sugars, amino acids, and nitrogenous wastes, cross the membrane, forming a solution; filtrate
    - - protonephridia
        
        flatworms
        
        branching network of dead end tubules. filter interstitial fluid
      - Metanephridia
        
        earthworms
        
        filter fluid from the coelum
      - Malpighian tubules
        
        insects
        
        outerpocketings of the digestive tract that help with osmoregulation and excretion
      - kidneys
        
        vertebrates, some chordates
        
        medulla, renal artery, renal vein, renal pelvis, contains nephrons
  - - - proximal tubules
        
        Descending limb of the loop of Henle
        
        Ascending limb of the loop of Henle
        
        Distal tubule
        
        Collecting duct
        
        excretes waste through urine
        
        refine filtrate and empties it into a collecting duct
        
        salt leaves by diffusion and by active transport
        
        water moves by osmosis into the interstitial fluid
        
        selective secretion and reabsorption
    - - countercurrent multiplier system maintains the gradient of salt concentration in the kidney interior
    - - desert mammals: have loops of Henle that extend deep into the renal medulla mammals in moist habitats: shorter loops and excrete more dilute urine
  - - - ADH
        
        prevents you from peeing
        
        when blood osmolarity rises above the normal range, such as when water intake is inadequate
      - Blood osmolarity, ADH release, and water reabsorption in the kidney are normally linked in a feedback circuit that contributes to homeostasis
    - - renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system (RAAS). The RAAS responds to the drop in blood volume and pressure by increasing water and sodium reabsorption.
        
        inhibited via atrial natriuretic peptide
      - blood pressure or blood volume in the afferent arteriole drops, the juxtaglomerular apparatus releases renin
    - - Both ADH and RAAS increase water reabsorption in the kidney.
      - whereas ADH alone would lower blood concentration via water reabsorption in the kidney, the RAAS helps maintain body fluid osmolarity within the normal range by stimulating reabsorption.
      - Thirst helps control of water and salt balance